Motivation as a key factor of communication and management processes in youth organizations of St. Petersburg and Prague

· Intrinsic motivation - the self-generated factors that influence people to behave in a particular way or to move in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility (feeling that the work is important and having control over one's own resources), autonomy (freedom to act), scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work and opportunities for advancement.

· Extrinsic motivation - what is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes rewards, such as increased pay, praise, or promotion, and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism The Motivation to Work, Herzberg Frederick with research colleagues Mausner Bernard and Snyderman Barbara, Wiley, New York, 1959.

It is extremely important to understand that intrinsic motivation is the one which arises from sources inside the individual, whereas extrinsic motivation comes from the outside environment. Every manager/leader should be conscious of the notional assumptions regarding subsequent effects of these types of motivation. These assumptions imply that extrinsic motivators have an immediate and forceful effect, though it does not necessarily mean that it will last long; while intrinsic motivators are likely to have a long-lasting effect since they are deep-rooted inside the individual and are not dictated from the outside.

As one of management handbooks describes, “someone is being intrinsically motivated if they derive their satisfaction from the knowledge of a job well done or from the challenge of a job. An extrinsically motivated person is one who wants something given to them as a reward” Management basics, Susan Quinn, 1^st edition, free eBooks bookboon.com, 2010. The author emphasizes that it would not necessarily mean that individuals who have intrinsic motivators would not also seek for a reward. It just means that in a situation when a reward is the only one thing which they get as a result, they will not be motivated through this extrinsic motivator since the major source for them still remains intrinsic. The principal objective of each manager here is to realize which type of motivator keeps his worker being highly motivated. Furthermore, he should be acknowledged of these employees' needs while establishing motivational methods. Likewise, youth organization managers should bear in mind these ideas and predominantly follow the intrinsically motivational assumptions since their members cannot receive a material reward in accordance with type of their organization. However, they should also remember that extrinsic motivators can be not only tangible (money, e.g.), but also psychological (praise e.g.). Therefore, another core objective of youth organization managers/leaders is to pay close attention to appreciation and recognition of their members' work.

Work motivation continues to be a dominant topic in organizational behavior science since it is considered to have an influence on individuals' actions in the organization. Arndt Sorge distinguishes two groups of factors for employees' behavior: hard and soft factors The IEBM Handbook of Organizational behavior, Arndt Sorge & Malcolm Warner, Thomson Learning Berkshire House, London, UK, 2001. Hard factors include hardware, costs and benefits, while soft factors imply exactly motivation and satisfaction of workers. And the most challengeable aspect here is that these soft factors can hardly be measured objectively. Therefore, it has to be noticed that motivation is considered to be the most significant and complicated challenge for every manager. And organization as a whole system is supposed to provide its members with high levels of their motivation by incentives and rewards practices, satisfying work environment, and, more importantly, opportunities for workers' learning and growth. Furthermore, this challenge leads to manager's both frustration and determination, which has to be solved as quickly as possible since it has influence on the effectiveness of all organization.

For one last important point regarding motivation as a process, it has to be mentioned that it is considered to be only one factor in the performance equation of employee. Generally, motivation and performance are believed to be same things. However, the researchers of organizational behavior studies argue that this is a faulty assumption. John P. Campbell and Robert D. Pritchard introduced a formula for proper perception and comprehension of performance equation:

“Performance = f (aptitude level * skill level * understanding of the task * choice to expend effort * choice of degree of effort to expend * choice to persist * facilitating and inhibiting conditions not under the individual's control” Motivation Theory in Industrial and Organizational Psychology (chapter 3 in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational psychology edited Marvin D. Dunnette), John P. Campbell, Robert D. Pritchard, Rand McNally College Publishing company, Chicago, 1976.

In this way, it has to be mentioned that they expanded well-known formula which expresses performance in industrial and organizational psychology as follows: performance = f (ability * motivation). The authors stated that motivation should be taken as a summary label which determines a group of independent/dependent variables relationships. In their opinion, performance “is not synonymous with effort, ability, or combination of the two” Same. Therefore, they labeled a group of determinants as a motivation => motivation - choice to expend effort + choice of degree of effort to expend + choice to persist. Hence, this set of independent/dependent variables relationships labeled as a motivation can explain the direction and perseverance of individual's behavior. Consequently, a simplified form of performance equation can be performed as follows:

Performance = f (aptitude level * skill level * understanding of the task * motivation * facilitating and inhibiting conditions not under the individual's control).

1.10 Work motivation theories

Work motivation theories were categorized into two groups, which are content and process oriented types of theories The IEBM Handbook of Organizational behavior, Arndt Sorge & Malcolm Warner, Thomson Learning Berkshire House, London, UK, 2001. The first group of theories involves assumptions regarding human needs and motives, primarily, extrinsic or intrinsic motivational factors which are responsible for of work feedback. While second group of motivation theories deals with variables which postulate that individuals' actions are determined by their cognitive choices. This paper relies on several motivation theories, which were taken from both groups in order to fully develop the issue being studied.

Organizational development draws on three psychological theories which can help organizations to improve its motivation aspects and workers' contribution, performance and satisfaction. These theories are Dynamics of organizational change and learning, Jaap J. Boonstra, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, England, 2004:

1. Motivation-need theory;

2. Job characteristic model;

3. Expectancy theory.

These theories explain motivation in the sense of peoples' psychological states, values, and expectations. Furthermore, they provide managers/leaders of organizations with the awareness of employees' differences as individuals and diverse organizational circumstances which motivation or do not motivate workers' behavior.

Motivation-need theory

I defined this theory earlier in this paper. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy used widely in organizational development. The principal explanation for that lies in its humanistic origins and ease of understanding for organization managers and other members. The core idea which this theory emphasizes provides managers with full range of needs which can motivate their workers. As I mentioned before, the most significant needs in youth organizations are higher level needs, such as social, esteem and self-actualization. With assistance of assumptions of this theory manager is able to consider more alternatives for enhanced motivation since traditional incentives such as money and security of job are not appropriate for this type of organizations. Therefore, it has led to a huge variety of OD interventions which have its aim to satisfy workers' higher-level needs “including job enrichment, self-managed teams, employee involvement, and career development” Same.

Job characteristics model

It was developed by Hackman and Oldham. The main focus of this theory is the job that workers perform while working. I have already mentioned briefly what it means, though I have to add more specific information regarding this theory and its relevance to the cases of this study. The core idea of this theory lies in the assumption that jobs that people do affect their motivation through three psychological states, which are meaningfulness of their work, responsibility for their woks, and knowledge about results of their activities. Hackman and Oldham claimed that “the more jobs are designed to enhance three states, the more motivating they will be, especially for people with strong growth needs” Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory, Hackman J. R., Oldham G. R., Organizational behavior and human performance, 1976. They drew a pretty simple and comprehensible scheme, which shows the connection between specific job characteristics, then these three psychological states, and then possible job outcomes:

Same

The task itself, as I emphasized before, is considered to be the key to workers' motivation. Thus, a boring and routine job prevents worker's motivation and worker himself to perform well, while a challenging and entertaining job conversely enhances motivation. Thereby, as one of organizational behavior books states, there are three significant ingredients of a more challenging job: “variety, autonomy, and decision authority”. Organizational behavior, Robert J. Kreitner, Angelo J. Kinicki, Library of congress, USA, 1989 Moreover, the author of this book claims that “two popular ways of adding variety and challenge to routine jobs are job enrichment (or job redesign) and job rotation” Same. Consequently, if manager of the organization follows these ideas while motivating employees, he probably can expect high quality of their work performance.

Therefore, core job dimensions have to be explained more precisely. I will start with first three dimensions, which are skill variety, task identity, and task significance. Skill variety basically implies the range of tasks performed by individual. It is highly important to say that there should be an appropriate variety of personal skills and talents used - it does not have to be overwhelming but at the same time it shouldn't be insufficient. Young people working as volunteers for youth organizations develop their personal skills and find a use for their hidden talents. As for task identity, it generally means that person should be able to complete the task from the beginning up to the end. Hence the outcome of this accomplished work will enable more pride for the person. This is a truly important thing for young people since having learned this competence they will be able to enter the labor market as competitive persons. Task significance expresses an ability to determine task as the one which is leading to something wider and beyond oneself. In other words, it is about recognition of the impact on other people. In youth organizations work it is also very important aspect to learn because these organizations deal with public outreach and vulnerable people. So, we can say that this is the very foundation of these types of organizations. Together these three dimensions contribute to individual's meaningfulness of the work. Consequently, there is a direct relationship which means that the higher all these three dimensions are the more meaningful and valuable work will be for individual.

The fourth dimension is autonomy which is related to a degree of employee's freedom and his ability to be independent worker. While having this autonomy employee can schedule his work to some extent and choose necessary procedures which are suitable for his style of work. It has to be noted that the higher this dimension is the more responsible employee will feel for the result of his work. I sincerely believe that autonomy dimension is extremely valuable for young people since they work in voluntary organizations which have flexible work time. Being engaged in many other activities (education - school/university, side jobs, etc.), young people are not supposed to work under pressure from their core team/chairpersons. Therefore, they value freedom and opportunity for being responsible for what they are doing. And the fifth dimension is feedback, which leads to knowledge of results. This dimension expresses the amount of information which is provided to employee regarding effectiveness of his work performance. Thus, employee will be able to recognize and appreciate efforts which he made. It is also very important for the members of youth organizations due to the fact that they do not have any other rewards except for words of esteem and appreciation. They cannot receive money for their active participation in organization's work, though they can be thanked and praised properly.

Hackman and Oldham argued that as a result of giving to employees the opportunity to feel these positive psychological states, managers/leaders of the organization can expect effective outcomes which will be satisfying for both individual and organization: “high internal work motivation, high quality work performance, high satisfaction with work, low absenteeism and turnover” Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory, Hackman J. R., Oldham G. R., Organizational behavior and human performance, 1976. The core idea which this model performs is to determine motivational potential of specific jobs and then redesign ones which have to be renovated.

Job enrichment represents an organizational intervention which can be created for the purpose of jobs reconstruction with the intention of having challenging, motivating and more satisfying work for the individuals. The principal idea of job enrichment is to enhance both worker's performance and satisfaction of doing his job. Hackman and Oldham believed that it could be done by providing employees with the opportunity for their achievement, growth and recognition. These theoretical assumptions resemble the core idea of Douglas McGregor's principle of Integration. This principle means that if managers follow these ideas of individuals' growth and satisfaction of their own needs, the organization will succeed and have effective results of this cooperative work.

1.11 Job redesign

It should be mentioned that job enrichment is considered to be one of motivation strategies regarding redesigning job processes. Human resource management handbook suggests several redesign attempts which can be done in the organization in order to enhance motivation of employees Human Resource Management, Manmohan Joshi, 1^st edition, free eBooks boookboon.com, 2013:

· Job enlargement which means an increase of task diversity for employee;

· Job rotation which indicates practice of assignment diverse tasks to different people. Therefore, it can lead to reemergence of individual's interest and eagerness to contribute more in his work.

· Job enrichment which implies almost the same as previous ones but with the presence of responsibility and autonomy for employee.

Redesigning jobs, in its turn, is believed to be one of motivation procedures for the effectiveness of management practices in the organization. In addition to job redesign, there are some other specific strategies for employees' motivation development: empowerment, reward system, and flexibility. “Empowerment occurs when individuals in an organization are given autonomy, authority, trust, and encouragement to accomplish a task” Same. As a matter of principle, that is what job enrichment theoretical assumptions constitute. The main objective of empowerment is also to give worker responsibility for his job. As for reward system, it should be implemented in the organization as well since it is considered to demonstrate all workers that their organizational behavior is appropriate and, what's more, it can be repeated on an ongoing basis. It is highly important to enforce this system in youth organizations as well because its elementary principle is that if a young volunteer feels that his work is valued and core team/chairpersons appreciate his efforts, then his motivation would definitely increase. It also should be mentioned that youth organizations managers/leaders cannot provide their members with pay bonuses or some career promotions. However, they are able to do special assignments or say verbal praise, for example. Flexibility does not suit youth organizations as a particular motivation strategy since that type of organization has already flexible timetable for their members. Nevertheless, it has to be mentioned that it is incredibly important to respect volunteers' time; and leaders of these organizations should not forget about their members' other needs and obligations, like family, school, and other activities.

Expectancy theory

This theory was developed by Victor H. Vroom. Generally, it defines motivation in the way that people make their choices regarding how much effort they will spend on both accomplishment of organizational functions and tasks and performance of their administrative duties. This theory introduces the idea of certain expectations and beliefs which individuals bear in mind concerning possible consequences and outcomes of their efforts. Therefore, the decisions which people in the organization make about their work and operational efforts and intentions are directly related to these expectations and beliefs. People, in Vroom's opinion, “are likely to exert high levels of effort when they believe that it will result in good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that those rewards are personally valued” Work and motivation, Vroom Victor H., New York: Wiley, 1964. It is essential to note that relations between these variables are multiplicative, which means that if one is low, then the level of motivation will be low as well. Edward E. Lawler, the professor of management organization in the University of Southern California, named these relations as a `line of sight' Pay for performance: making it work, Lawler Edward E, from Personnel Journal, October 1988, which means that individuals must recognize the actual importance and opportunity to obtain this reward. To put it another way it I have to point out that workers in the organization should have a clear line of sight between what they do and what they will subsequently receive for it. `Line of sight' concept was adapted from Lawler into comprehensible model by Michael Armstrong as follows:

A handbook of human resource management practice, Michael Armstrong, 10^th edition, Kogan Page Limited, USA, 2006

Expectancy theory falls under the category of process theories. The key emphasis is on processes or forces which influence individual's motivation. Process theories are considered to be cognitive since they basically relate to employees' perceptions of organizational and working environment. Process theories, in general, explain how worker's behavior is given a direction or purpose through his interaction with environment. In comparison to content theories (Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor model, etc.), process theories are more complex and dynamic Organizational behavior, Robert J. Kreitner, Angelo J. Kinicki, Library of congress, USA, 1989. Moreover, they provide managers with more realistic counseling regarding motivation techniques.

Being interested in the fields of industrial and organizational psychology, Victor Vroom was willing to find a particular theoretical structure which would be helpful for both researchers and practitioners in these fields. Thus, he called this structure as expectance theory or VIE (valence, instrumentality, expectancy) theory. As he emphasized, it helped him “to organize the evidence on such problems as occupational choice, job satisfaction, and motivation for effective work performance” Work and motivation, Vroom Victor H., New York: Wiley, 1964. This theory is based on the assumption that all human beings are rational, purposeful and resolved to do something. You could say that people are certainly aware of their goals, objectives and behavior.

Thereby, Vroom and his followers assume that people's behavior emanates from conscious and intentional choices from miscellaneous alternatives. The purpose of these choices is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Vroom recognized the basis of employee's performance, which is, in his opinion, such individual factors as personality, abilities, skills, knowledge and experience. He used several variables to explain it: expectancy, instrumentality and valence. It is important to highlight the implications of these variables. So, valence means values; instrumentality implies the belief about consequence of one thing after another; and expectancy implies feasibility of result and outcomes derived from efforts which were made.

The concept of expectancy with regard to organizational behavior was characterized by Vroom as follows: “expectancy is defined as a momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome” Same. Furthermore, he described expectancy in terms of its strength. He claimed that it can be represented by any number between 0 (which means no chance) and 1 (which means certainty). The subjective certainty that individual act will be followed by specific outcome indicates a maximal strength, while the subjective certainty that this act will not be followed by specific outcome indicates a minimal (zero) strength. Moreover, the strength of expectations might be established in accordance with past individual's experience, which is reinforcement (it was explained above in the paragraph “the emergence of motivation”).

With regard to the case of my research it has to be noticed that expectancy means a lot for young people since the only thing they have in their mind is that “if I work harder, this will be definitely better”. They are focused on the achievement of better results, good future, and self-confidence. It is crucial for them to have necessary supervisor support and accurate information regarding job tasks. Instrumentality signifies a valued outcome which they expect to have as a result of their voluntary work. In other words, you could say that they are convinced that if they perform a good job, then something will be waiting for them in this job. The leaders of youth organizations have to imbue their workers that there is a reward system which has, in turn, a transparency of outcomes decision-making processes. Young people are supposed to understand and believe that there actually is the relationship between their performance and possible outcomes and paybacks. And, finally, valence stands for the significance of a valued outcome for a certain person in the organization. For example, when a young person is primarily motivated by his communication and contacts with other members of the organization, he might not value such rewards as career perspective or more flexible participation. In other words, the reward which he expects to have should be worthwhile for him, only then there will be a link between directional effort and this reward.

In such a way, it has to be generalized that Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is rather about individuals' associations towards expected work outcomes than about their self-interest and focus on rewards for personal gain. Therefore, as `YourCoach' team founders state, employees in an organization will be motivated when they believe that:

· Putting in more effort will yield better job performance;

· Better job performance will lead to organizational rewards, such as an increase in salary or benefits;

· These predicted organizational rewards are valued by the employee in question Electronic resource - http://www.yourcoach.be/en/employee-motivation-theories/vroom-expectancy-motivation-theory.php (Belgian company which focuses on organizational trainings, marketing and communication).

Thus, in order to improve performance-outcome relationships, youth organizations leaders should apply such rewarding systems that best connect work outcomes of young people with their active performance and participation in organization's activities. Key features of these systems should be honored and followed: young members of organizations have to firstly want these rewards and, what's also important, deserve them.

1.12 Work (job) satisfaction

Work satisfaction is considered to be the most outstanding result and outcome of work motivation. This term refers to the attitudes, perceptions and feelings which people have regarding their work. Hence, researchers distinguish two opposite concepts: job satisfaction, which is a favorable attitude towards work performed, and job dissatisfaction which is an unfavorable attitude towards work performed. Edwin A. Locke, an American psychologist, was the one whose definition of `job satisfaction' has been commonly and widely used in organizational research. He claimed that “job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences” The nature and causes of job satisfaction in Dunnette, M. D. Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1<sup>st</sup> edition, Locke Edwin A., Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1976. Moreover, he connected this emotional state (job satisfaction) with the achievement of personal job values in work situation. For the most part definitions of work (job) satisfaction are quite similar. However, there might be difference in terms of conceptualization of what people perceive as `achievement of one's job values'.

Job satisfaction was also defined as “an effective or emotional response toward various facets of one's job” Organizational behavior, Robert J. Kreitner, Angelo J. Kinicki, Library of congress, USA, 1989 in the organizational behavior handbook by Robert Kreitner. The author also highlights that person while working in the organization can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of his work and at the same time dissatisfied with one or more other aspects. Moreover, he specified four prevailing models of job satisfaction:

1. Needs fulfillment which is concerned with the extent to which job characteristics allow worker to fulfill his own needs.

2. Discrepancies which identify job satisfaction as a result of met expectations (what worker expects to receive as an outcome of his job and what he actually receives).

3. Value attainment which affects individual's perception regarding fulfillment of his significant work values.

4. Equity which is about fairness treatment at work Same.

It has to be noted that work satisfaction can be interpreted as a product or result of an immediate interaction between individual and his work situation. A person can develop a certain degree of his job satisfaction or dissatisfaction in accordance with the match between: his expectations, needs and motives, on the one hand, and his work situation, on the other.

However, it is highly important to notice that organizational research has not established any strongly positive connection between work satisfaction and worker's performance. Many researchers have expressed their views regarding these relationships. However, the nature of job satisfaction and work performance relationships is not clear. From the textbook about management and organizational behavior I discovered that “the level of job satisfaction may well affect the strength of motivation but this is not always the case. The relationship between job satisfaction and performance is an issue of continuing debate and controversy” Management and Organizational behavior, 9^th edition, Laurie J. Mullins, Prentice Hall Financial Times, England, 2010. The author of this book assumes that satisfaction is not the same as motivation. And what's more appealing is the fact that same as motivation, work satisfaction can mean different things for different people in the organization.

Nevertheless, I would like to emphasize the significance of Frederick Herzberg's theory with regard to work satisfaction and work performance relationships. Although his two-factor model has been criticized by academics a lot, it still remains to be influential and valuable for organizational studies. An apparent reason for that is the fact that this theory is considered to be based on real life evidence, and what's more important, it corresponds with the well-respected ideas of Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor in terms of its focus on the importance of intrinsic motivators.

1.13 Two-factor model: motivators versus hygiene

Frederick Herzberg was an American organizational psychologist. His name has been one of the most famous and powerful in business management and organizational studies up to now. He proposed that there are certain factors in the organizational workplace which generate an individual's job satisfaction; he named them motivators. Meanwhile there are another sort of factors which, on the contrary, generate an individual's job dissatisfaction; he named them hygiene factors. For the record, he used this medical terminology with meaning of “preventive and environmental” A handbook of human resource management practice, Michael Armstrong, 10^th edition, Kogan Page Limited, USA, 2006 sense. It is highly important to emphasize that he did not separate these conditions of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Conversely, he assumed that they can exist and act independently of one another. He developed a fundamental hypothesis which claimed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction could not be measured on the same continuum The Motivation to Work, Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, Barbara B. Snyderman, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1959.

As for motivation, Herzberg believed that it is a direct product of job satisfaction. Therefore, the two-factor theory was proposed in order to realize what the main principles of people's attitudes towards their work are. Herzberg conducted a study in collaboration with his colleagues Mausner and Snyderman. They interviewed in total 203 accountants and engineers. The main objective of this interviewing was to define key factors which could be responsible for workers' job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. During interviews the researchers asked their respondents to think and describe in details the situation in which they felt incredibly good regarding their work. The next round of interviewing was developed further and during these interviews respondents had to do the same but in the other way around - when they felt especially bad.

As a result, it was found that job satisfaction and `good conditions' in the workplace are associated mostly with personal achievement, responsibility, advancement, and recognition. It is worth noting that these factors are related to the content of organizational tasks and work itself. Frederick Herzberg named these factors as motivators since they are relevant primarily to workers' supreme efforts and also to their great performance. These motivators lead person to change a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction. On the other hand, job dissatisfaction and `bad conditions' are frequently concerned with administration, company policy, and working conditions. Consequently, they were labeled as hygiene factors which were related to the context of the job, in other words, work environment. Further he assumed that these factors are not motivational. Herzberg argued that in the best cases workers experience the state of no satisfaction if they do not have any complaints regarding hygiene factors.

Thereby, for illustrative purposes Motivation-Hygiene attitude model was established by David A. Whitsett and Erik K. Winslow and can be presented as follows An Analysis of Studies Critical of the Motivator-Hygiene Theory, David A. Whitsett, Erik K. Winslow, Personnel Psychology journal, 1967:

No Satisfaction ---------------------------------------------------- Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction ----------------------------------------------- No dissatisfaction

Repeatedly, it has to be emphasized that dissatisfaction and factors which contribute to dissatisfaction are separate and distinct from factors which contribute to satisfaction. According to the model presented above, the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction, while the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. It is noteworthy to say that the traditional perception of satisfaction and dissatisfaction represents these states as simple opposites. These academic researchers also highlighted that this theory was the first to account for analysis of the `good and bad conditions' through the individual's need structure explanation Same.

Frederick Herzberg also believed that there is a zero midpoint between the states of dissatisfaction and satisfaction. He attributed this ambivalent condition to the situation in the workplace when an individual has, for instance, good pay and working conditions, but at the same time an unchallenging task. In such a way, this organizational member would have no dissatisfaction (since there are good hygiene factors) and no satisfaction (since he lacks motivation). It is extremely important to say that Herzberg, in that way, informed managers and leaders of organizations that good payment and working conditions are not sufficient factors for strong workers' motivation. It takes “an enriched job that offers the individual opportunity for achievement and recognition, stimulation, responsibility, and advancement” The Motivation to Work, Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, Barbara B. Snyderman, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1959.

In order to gain a better understanding of this zero midpoint condition Robert Kreitner adapted Motivator-Hygiene attitude model and illustrated it with a full description of motivators and hygiene factors as follows:

Organizational behavior, Robert J. Kreitner, Angelo J. Kinicki, Library of congress, USA, 1989

The very significant conclusions of Herzberg's research were formulated as follows: “the wants of employees divide into two groups. One group revolves around the need to develop in one's occupation as a source of personal growth. The second group operates as an essential base to the first and is associated with fair treatment in compensation, supervision, working conditions and administrative practices” Same. He also claimed that since the second group of employees' wants does not motivate them to make an additional effort and perform extraordinarily, all that managers can expect after satisfying this group of needs is the avoidance of their job dissatisfaction. Eventually, it can be deduced that Herzberg's two factor theory makes statements about human nature: a man takes different actions in accordance with two important needs, which are the need for growth and the need to avoid pain. Thus, this theory is indeed an extension of Maslow's ideas regarding people's needs and its impact on their motivational behavior.

1.14 Knowledge management and organizational learning

Knowledge nowadays becomes a very important resource of human growth and development. It is not a strict secret that by knowing how we can use properly our knowledge we will be stronger and more competitive even despite the changing environment. In this connection I would like to talk about knowledge management, which is itself the process of capturing, developing, sharing, and effectively using organizational knowledge. It has to be noted that a lot of companies are interested in becoming learning organizations by implementing the practices of organizational learning since they believe that this is an extremely valuable source of competitive advantage. Academic researchers, in turn, have this interest in organizational learning for the reason of verification theoretical basis of this aspect of organizational studies. As Moingeon and Edmondson claimed: “in recent popular management literature, learning is presented as a source of competitive advantage, but definitions and mechanisms involved in achieving this advantage are not specified” Organizational Learning and Competitive Advantage, Moingeon B. and Edmondson A., SAGE, London, 1996. In my sincere opinion, it is extremely important to examine this aspect of organizational studies as well since it will help managers of youth organizations to develop necessary steps which are required in terms of achievement of organization's effectiveness.

Certainly, there are no universal definitions for knowledge management and organizational learning. From my point of view, one of the most comprehensible and proverbial definition of organizational learning was developed by Fiol and Lyles: “organizational learning means the process of improving actions through better knowledge and understanding” Organizational learning, Fiol C. M. and Lyles M. A., Academy of Management Review 10(4), 1985. Organizational learning is the process of creating, retaining, and transferring knowledge within an organization. Organizational learning is the distinctive organizational behavior that is practiced in a learning organization. As Denton John defined a learning organization, “an organization which has any claim to be a learning organization must be able to generate new ideas, to propose new, untried solutions to its problems and, in general, to be `creative'” Organizational Learning and Effectiveness, Denton John, Routledge, New York, 1998. In other words, organizational learning is a process, a set of actions: organizational learning is something the organization does; a learning organization is something the organization is. An organization learns successfully when it is able to retain this knowledge and transfer it to, or spread it throughout, the various divisions within an organization.

As for knowledge management, it basically refers to a multidisciplinary approach which implies the achievement of organizational objectives best by benefiting from knowledge. By organizational objectives people typically involve the improvement of organizational performance, strengthening of competitive advantage, integration and innovation. In this regard, it is important to highlight that knowledge management efforts which have its aim to achieve organizational objectives described above, are overlapping with organizational learning. Ron Sanchez claimed in his book `Strategic learning and knowledge management' that knowledge management is believed to be an enabler of organizational learning Strategic Learning and Knowledge Management, Sanchez R., Chichester: Wiley, 1996.

It is extremely important to note that there are two main aspects of knowledge management: information management and people management. It is clear enough with the second term, but the first term should be defined more precisely. Information management is mainly associated with the management of knowledge which is concerned with the objects under control of information systems. Both these aspects of knowledge management represent two critical concerns: “to make organizational knowledge more productive; and to produce benefits that are significantly greater than those envisioned” Introduction to knowledge management, Filemon A. Uriarte Jr., ASEAN Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia, 2008. Fundamentally, knowledge management involves the recognition and outlining of intellectual resources within an organization. In short, it implies the identification of who knows what in the organization.

One more valuable definition of knowledge management was formulated as follows: “knowledge management is the conversion of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and sharing it within the organization” Introduction to knowledge management, Filemon A. Uriarte Jr., ASEAN Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia, 2008. Obviously, it has to be started with the explanation of what tacit and explicit knowledge mean. First and foremost, I have to note that that process of knowledge creation consists of these two types of knowledge, which are interconnected with each other. The first one is `explicit knowledge', which refers, as Michael Polanyi said, to knowledge that is transmittable in formal, systematic language Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy, Polanyi M., University of Chicago Press, 1958. While “`tacitness' is something personal, an ability or skill to do something or to resolve a problem that is based, in part, on one's own experiences and learning” Same. In knowledge management studies academics refer the concept of tacit knowledge to the one which cannot be completely codified. Thus, people can acquire it without language. But they can do it through experience. It is well-known that without certain form of mutual experience, people would face with difficulties in the exchange of each other's thinking processes.

Ikujiro Nonaka, a Japanese organizational theorist, is incredibly famous for his studies in knowledge management. He took Polanyi's work about `personal knowledge' and extended it to now known field of organizational knowledge. Thereby, he presented a new description of knowledge in an organizational context. Thus, in his opinion, `tacit knowledge' has a personal quality, which makes it hard to formulize and communicate. “Tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in action, commitment, and involvement in a specific context” A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation, Ikujiro Nonaka, Organization science, 1994. Nonaka also claimed that successful innovation derives from mobilization and conversion of tacit knowledge. Altogether, knowledge management for him is about knowledge transfers between explicit and tacit, between individual and collective.

In his work `The knowledge creating company' he proposed a `SECI' model which describes four modes of knowledge conversion: socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization: The Knowledge Creating Company, Nonaka I., Harvard Business Review, 1991

Tacit knowledge is created from tacit knowledge when one person shares his own knowledge with another person (socialization). The creation of explicit knowledge from explicit knowledge happens when a person or an organization reconcile current explicit fragments of information together and creates a new completed one (combination). The conversion of tacit knowledge into explicit occurs through the articulation process when an individual is able to effectively communicate and explicate his skills, this knowledge becomes explicit (externalization). And, finally, the conversion of explicit knowledge into tacit occurs with a help of individuals (internalization). By that I mean that people in the organization internalize some fragment of explicit knowledge and share it among other members. Interestingly, that this knowledge becomes a part of background information which is necessary for the job and, what's more appealing, it is usually taken for granted.

1.15 Six main antecedents of organizational learning

Organizational learning happens frequently within an organization and allows the organization to stay competitive in an ever-changing environment. It is a process of improvement that can increase efficiency and accuracy. Peter Senge argued that organizations must learn if they are willing to succeed since he seemed to think that “old, bureaucratic command-and-control model will not be good enough for the challenges ahead:

· It will not be fast enough to meet the new product development time of foreign competitors or to spot new market opportunities.

· It will not be wise enough to deliver the high levels of service customers will increasingly demand.

· It will not be smart enough to manage a diverse workforce or to motivate its smartest employees.” The Fifth Discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization, Senge Peter, Doubleday, New York, 1990

It has to be mentioned that these three challenges correspond to six main antecedents which were formulated by Denton John. He defined them as driving forces, which constitute an organizational learning context where this process must be placed and further can be explored effectively. It is highly important to say that these antecedents do not create learning organizations; they just create a proper environment and contribute organizations to become learning ones. Therefore, six main antecedents of organizational learning have been formulated as follows:

1) The shift in the relative importance of the factors of production away from capital towards labor, particularly intellectual labor.

2) The increasing acceptance of knowledge as a prime source of competitive advantage.

3) The increasingly rapid pace of change in the business environment.

4) Increasing dissatisfaction among managers and employees with the traditional command-and-control management paradigm.

5) The increasingly competitive nature of the global business environment.

6) The greater demands being placed on all businesses by their customers Organizational Learning and Effectiveness, Denton John, Routledge, New York, 1998.

These antecedents are the main factors which have raised to prominence the notion of organizational learning. They have been identified as a result of both an extensive literature survey and discussions with managers from the case companies in Denton John's research. Briefly key features of these antecedents are provided below.

The shifting importance of factors of production

There are three main factors production: land, labor, and capital. Further entrepreneurship was indicated as the fourth one. Although since the Second World War the role of land and capital has been diminished, labor (particularly intellectual labor) has become a much more influential in terms of production. Therefore, the increasing importance of people and their intellectual assets compelled companies and organizations to decrease bureaucracy and, what's more important, create organizational culture which would be able to provide organization's workers with greater freedom. Thus, as Denton John said “organizational learning is clearly a people-oriented philosophy” Organizational Learning and Effectiveness, Denton John, Routledge, New York, 1998. In this way, the leaders of organizations should manage their workers not focusing on mechanisms, as earlier, but rather on people, as it is stated in this antecedent. In youth organizations managers/leaders should take this antecedent for granted since young people represent untraditional and creative workplace learning initiatives. Moreover, they are believed to have inspirational and dynamic forces which can be simply implemented in the organization for its innovation and organizational learning.

Knowledge as a source of competitive advantage

Knowledge became an incredibly important source of competitive advantage. There is general agreement that organizations which are able to create and gain knowledge, are likely to have a clear source of power. As Peter Drucker claimed, “knowledge is the primary resource for individuals and the economy overall” The Fifth Discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization, Senge Peter, Doubleday, New York, 1990. Knowledge indeed is considered to be new strategic imperative of organizations. One of the most significant features of organizational learning is the fact that knowledge has to be shared within the organization in order for it to grow. If organization's managers and other workers share knowledge, it is believed that this organization will grow stronger and more competitive. Thereby, knowledge sharing is highly important in any organization which is willing to become the learning one. Youth organizations are not the exception, they also can benefit from knowledge exchange among their members. More importantly, young people themselves can take advantage of this sharing because they are in the process of learning; this is their life condition for now.

The increasingly rapid pace of change in the business environment

Change is indeed very interesting issue for many managers in a lot of organizations. However, it is not that simple to initiate change, manage it, and further benefit from it. Unconditionally, it is important to distinguish between short-term and long-term changes. Short-term changes are cyclical, for instance, fluctuating exchange; while long-term - are fundamental, for example, technological (advances in information technology) or social (increasing concern for environment) Organizational Learning and Effectiveness, Denton John, Routledge, New York, 1998. Obviously, youth organizations are also in an urgent need of change, though it has to be considered which sort of problems they encountered in order to define whether short-term or long-term changes should be implemented.