Being at table with God and people: food in anthropology and religion (review)

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Being at table with God and people:

food in anthropology and religion (review)

Georgyi Khliebnikov

Doctor of Philosophical Sciences,

Head of the Center of Scientific Information Studies in the

Humanities, INION RAN

Irina Tsibizova

Doctor of Historical Sciences, the Center of Scientific Information Studies in the Humanities, INION RAN

Alexander Shubin

post-graduate student of the Department of Philosophy, History and Socio-Humanitarian Sciences, SHEI “Donbas State Pedagogical University”

(Sloviansk, Ukraine)

Abstract

The article deals with the Italian thinkers' reflection on food and its role in culture and religion from primitive believes to Judaism and Christianity. Food is viewed as the means of human identity and social formation as well as strengthening of connections between peoples and cultures, between people and God.

The authors investigate the process of transformation of the perception offood from ancient times to nowadays, investigate the transformations of rituals, connected to the meal, in the different stages of transformations, in different cultures and religions.

The article considers the rituals and traditions, connected with food; the authors investigate and reveal their essence, symbolic and religious meaning, the impact on social and cultural development.

It's worth mentioning that the scientists underline the necessity to revise the views cultivated for centuries, to rethink widespread opposition of the material and spiritual, of the body and the human soul. They emphasize that food is necessary both for the physical and spiritual development of a man.

Keywords: anthropology; Christianity; Eucharist; food; God; Judaism; bread; religion; theology; vine.

ГЕОРГІЙ ХЛЄБНІКОВ кандидат філософських наук, завідувач відділом філософії Центру гуманітарних науково-інформаційних досліджень ІНІОН РАН

ІРИНА ЦИБИЗОВА кандидат історичних наук, науковий співробітник Відділу філософії Інституту наукової інформації з суспільних наук РАН

ОЛЕКСАНДР ШУБІН аспірант кафедри філософії, історії та соціально - гуманітарних наук, Донбаський державний педагогічний університет (м. Слов'янськ, Україна)

ЗА СТОЛОМ З БОГОМ І ЛЮДЬМИ: ЇЖА В АНТРОПОЛОГІЇ ТА РЕЛІГІЇ (огляд)

Анотація. Стаття присвячена дослідженню поглядів італійських мислителів на їжу та її роль у культурі та релігії від первісних вірувань до іудаїзму та християнства. Їжа розглядається як засіб людської ідентичності та соціального становлення, а також зміцнення зв'язків між народами та культурами, між людьми та Богом.

Автори досліджують процес трансформації сприйняття їжі з найдавніших часів до наших днів, досліджують трансформації ритуалів, пов'язаних із трапезою, на різних етапах історичного розвитку, в різних культурах та релігіях.

У статті розглядалися ритуали та традиції, пов'язані з їжею; автори досліджують та розкривають їх сутність, символічне та релігійне значення, вплив на соціальний та культурний розвиток. Слід наголосити, що вчені підкреслюють необхідність переглянути погляди, що культивуються століттями, переосмислити широке протиставлення матеріального та духовного, тіла та людської душі. Вони підкреслюють, що їжа необхідна як для фізичного, так і для духовного розвитку людини.

Ключові слова: антропологія; Бог; вино; Євхаристія; іудаїзм; їжа; релігія; теологія; хліб; християнство.

ГЕОРГИЙ ХЛЕБНИКОВ кандидат философских наук, заведующий отделом философии Центра гуманитарных научно-информационных исследований ИНИОН РАН (Москва, Россия)

ЦИБИЗОВА ИРИНА кандидат исторических наук, научный сотрудник Отдела философии Института научной информации по общественным наукам РАН

АЛЕКСАНДР ШУБИН аспирант кафедры философии, истории и социальногуманитарных наук, Донбасский государственный педагогический университет (г. Славянск, Украина)

ЗА СТОЛОМ С БОГОМ И ЛЮДЬМИ: ЕДА В АНТРОПОЛОГИИ И РЕЛИГИИ (обзор)

Аннотация. Статья посвящена исследованию взглядов итальянских мыслителей на еду и ее роль в культуре и религии от первобытных верований к иудаизму и христианству.

Еда рассматривается как средство самоидентификации личности, ее социального становления, интеграции в общество, а также укрепления связей между народами и культурами, между людьми и Богом.

Авторы исследуют процесс трансформации восприятия пищи с древнейших времен до наших дней, трансформации ритуалов, связанных с трапезой, на разных этапах исторического развития, в различных культурах и религиях.

В статье рассматривались ритуалы и традиции, связанные с едой; авторы исследуют и раскрывают их сущность, символическое и религиозное значение, влияние на социальное и культурное развитие.

Следует отметить, что ученые подчеркивают необходимость пересмотреть взгляды, культивируемые веками, переосмыслить господствующее стереотипное противопоставление материального и духовного, греховного тела и человеческой души. Они подчеркивают, что пища необходима как для физического, так и для духовного развития человека.

Ключевые слова: антропология; Бог; вино; Евхаристия; иудаизм; пища; религия; теология; хлеб; христианство.

Statement of the problem

The international conference at Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan (October 7-9, 2015) was devoted to the discussion of food, its cultural and social role, in particular in religions. Systems of religious beliefs have developed many symbols, prescriptions, and rituals that shape society, regulate all aspects of human behavior, including eating one. Comprehension of the heritage of religious traditions, their transformation in the context of modern secularity has created conditions for an open dialogue about age- old rituals, prohibitions, and the social significance of food distribution, as well as a renewed understanding of this distribution, cordiality/hospitality, and justice.

F. Anelli, the rector of Catholic University, emphasized the importance of considering the connection between food, religion, and culture for the development of a new humanistic synthetic thinking on the most important international political problems, for the development of a unified position to the common welfare (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, pp. VII-VIII). He highlighted the importance of theological and philosophical research for the multidisciplinary scientific and educational community, as well as the need for a common perception of the problem of feeding the planet, providing energy for life. It was proposed to consider food as a constructive factor of cultural identity, deeply embedded in the "archetypes" of humanity. In other words, nowadays, it is clear the necessity of the development of the universal anthropological, philosophical and theological approach to understanding and investigating food as a cultural phenomenon.

The study is aimed at investigating, revealing, and rethinking philosophically the cultural, social essence of the food.

Statement of the main material

According to K. Levi- Strauss, everything related to nutrition is defined as a bridge between nature and culture.

R. Bartes argues that food is not only a set of products but also a communicative system, a field for imagination, a protocol of usage situations and behavior. The language of food reveals the fundamental elements in the formation of specific traditions and identity, serves as the means of communication and creation of connections between individuals, national societies, and cultural models. Food has a great symbolic meaning, reflected in the most important issues of existence and ritual forms (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, pp. IX-X).

J. Rice argues that images of grapes and a goat serve as an important step in the development of the consciousness of the Indo-Europeans. The scientist considers them as eschatological symbols of acceptance of the human soul into the world of the thunder god (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, pp. IX-X).

According to D. Filoramo, who is the famous interpreter of L. Feuerbach, religions not only appreciated food culturally but made it sacred. For every civilization, food acquired symbolic values associated with the dimension of the sacred. The food ritual has a typical social valence because it formed the origins of collective activities related to collective survival, everyday life, nature, and secrets. The food of humans became the food of the gods. It was offered for people and became the basis of rituals.

Christianity reversed this issue: God didn't invite a man to his table, but He offered Himself as food for the salvation of people (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, p. X). The meeting of people at the table was transformed into a "sacred meal."

Nutrition is not only a matter of the survival of an individual, it is as well an instrument of the creation of socially organized groups. In interactions with these groups, a person learns to understand himself/herself, all created around himself/herself, relationships with other people, and connection with God.

According to prophet Isaiah, “on this mountain, the Lord of hosts will make for all peoples a feast of rich food, a feast of well-aged wine, of rich food full of marrow, of aged wine well refined” (Isaiah 25:6).

Many of Jesus' miracles are associated with food, although man does not live by bread alone. Addressing the Jews, the Son of God said: “Do not work for the food that perishes, but for the food that endures to eternal life, which the Son of Man will give to you. For on him God the Father has set his seal” John 6, 2627) (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, p. XI). Having fed the crowd, He made the people understand that satiety alone is not enough, He raised the question of the meaning of life, He made obvious that the people need to eat not only to survive but also to realize their destiny.

However, the lack of food means of subsistence remains an insoluble problem for a significant part of humanity. Mercy as a way of saving this population, as concrete and actual evidence of the breaking of bread, makes Tintoretto's masterpieces "The Last Supper" and Rubens's "Triumph of the Eucharist", represented sacredness of the loaves of bread, modern, actual, and vital. Being at the table with God originates the possibility of unity with people affected by need, gives meaning to the corresponding work, solidarity with an open heart (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, p. XII).

The table in the discourses serves as a symbol of unity, the vital relationships between God and people, such as truly human relationships. The masterpieces and the interactive project organized around the pavilion table gave a deeper meaning to His name: "Not by bread alone ... give us our bread." Christian experience in all its dimensions as an authentic response to the numerous challenges of the time is necessary for essential and deep nourishment of not only a body but as well a heart and mind (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, p. XIV).

According to D. Colombo, who is the project coordinator, God is the hero sitting at the table. He gives bread, and in Christianity - Himself through the body and blood of Jesus Christ (the first part of the collection “Bread and Wine: Eating God, Generating Man” (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, pp. 1-71). The thinker called the discussion a real feast for the body and spirit of representatives of various religions (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, p. XVI). However, he warns against the blatant provocation of "secular cuisine", consideration of food both in material and symbolic meanings, calling such attempts "a psychological pomp between immanence and transcendence." Those who declare their love for some kind of food should remember Saint Augustine, according to whom everyone is what he loves. Thus, who feeds God will become Him. However, the Church Father does not dare to say this, listening to the Scriptures, according to which all are children of the Most High (A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale, 2015, p. XVII).

Silvano M. Tomasi, who is the papal nuncio in the UN, in his opening remarks "Food in the Bible: the path of unity" (Tomasi, 2016, pp. 3-15) emphasizes the importance of a person's relationship with food as the physical need and symbol (Tomasi, 2016, pp. 3-4). To satisfy the hunger a person needs saturation with mystery secret of which he does not possess, and which he can only be bestowed. The biblical tradition uses food as a means of creating community, while the physical need for food makes a person understand his limits and creation. The Vatican invites all wishers to participate in the project of solidarity, aimed at saturation of the planet, both each person and the environment (Tomasi, 2016, p. 4).

Analysis of the evolution of the status of food in international law (from the need necessary for survival up to food security and healthy food for every person and nation, (Tomasi, 2016, pp. 4-8) allows the thinker stops at the biblical interpretation of food as a path to unity, integrity with other people and God (Tomasi, 2016, pp. 8-13). The symbolic function of food as a means of unification follows from the parable of Jesus about the wedding: achievement of the Kingdom of Heaven, a meeting of all the elected is possible under the circumstances of the accordance of man to the conditions of the feast (Matt. 22: 1-14).

The breaking of the loaves (Acts 2:42) expresses the unity of all believers with Jesus and among themselves. The future of humanity is to sit together with other people at the table of God filled with food, having realized its purpose -- to live in unity (Tomasi, 2016, pp. 9-10).

Philosophy from Plato to Nietzsche constantly deals with food. It is understood both as the primary need of the body and as a metaphor for what feeds humanity. Food is interpreted in such terms as subjectivity, relativity, and nature. In its own turn, these categories are constraints describing the need for food. The boundary of subjectivity is the contact that a subject is trying to establish between himself and the surrounding world. The presence of the other is invariable to the surrounding world: from a mother's body to a community to which an individual belongs and to the definition of which he or she contributes. In many poor countries, food shortages result in uncertainness about the future: famine has caused numerous casualties among the Lazarus, who, according to Paul VI, are not allowed to sit at the table of the Rich Glutton. Feeding the hungry for the Church is an ethical imperative that corresponds to the teachings of solidarity and communion with its Founder, Lord Jesus (Tomasi, 2016, pp. 12-13). It is necessary to learn humanity, recognition of humanity in everyone, and recognition of everyone as one who needs everything. In this case, the individual and society consistently complement each other. The anthropological essence, transferred to the religious field, says that making bread for others after Christ has become that bread is the right way to solve the problem of hunger, to achieve the saturation of the body and heart (Tomasi, 2016, p. 15).

A. Ales Bello in his speech "Feast and Sacrifice: Nutrition of the Body and Spirit" (1, pp. 19-28) examines the forms of communication between the human and the divine, associated with sacrifice during the feast or after it. This consideration in the philosophical and phenomenological field is carried out at the anthropological and historical levels, defined by H. van der Leeuw as “the phenomenology of religion” (Bello, 2016, pp. 1920). The unity/dualism and equality of all people are derived from the hyletic and noetic spheres as the fundamental structural moments of various cultural configurations (Bello, 2016, p. 20). E. Stein found the Augustinian motif of constancy in the core of personal identity (un Kern). According to St. Augustine, this core is the deepest and most ultimatum place of the inner world, the place of the soul, subdivided into psychological and spiritual. The truth stored in "silver vessels” dwells there. The "silver vessels” are structures that create a person: in unique/unified and complex, bodily, psychologically, and spiritually aspects, since the feeling of the Force is expressed through the configurations of the “vessels”. The living within or the transcendent is a present / absent thing, an object of desire, fear, love, intellectual quest, and wish to have. This is expressed in various modalities by all sacred and religious traditions (Bello, 2016, p. 21). Primitive rituals (for example, the salmon donation in the Indian tribe) are judged as a hyletic sensual moment. According to Ales Bello, these rituals do not distinguish the immanent and the transcendental, synthesis of the bodily, psychological, and spiritual dimensions (Bello, 2016, p. 25). Characterizing modern Western cultures, the author defines religion in them as a "complex of the sacred" (Bello, 2016, p. 26). Considering the continuity and differences between Jewish and Christian traditions from the point of view of the feast and donation, she emphasizes that worshiping God in “spirit and truth” indicates the victory of the noetic moment (Bello, 2016, p. 27). Easter is celebrated by eating not an animal sacrifice, but bread and wine as products made from plants modified by man. These products remain the humanity Abel's offering to God. Christian innovation consists in identifying bread and wine as the body and blood of Jesus. Here there are not only a hyletic (physical life) but also psychological and spiritual moments, and not a single aspect of the human personality is left aside. This sacramental dimension is the most significant synthesis of the relationship between the human and the divine (Bello, 2016, p. 27-28). Jesus' proposal to taste his flesh and blood is a consequence of spiritual strengthening through the grace given from the communion with Bread and Wine. This proposal contradicts the scientific mentality of Modernity, in which the spirit is considered as something external in the style of R. Descartes's speculations. Spirit and body are not the same and cannot coexist otherwise than temporarily. In addition to the duality in the unity of man, mentioned by Plato, one should also remember the Resurrection of Jesus, prophetically expressed in the symbol of Nicaea. At the sacred feast, the sacred-religious moment always has the main meaning, although it is “replaced” by outwardly desacralised rituals, constantly reminding of the need for the transcendent for a person (Bello, 2016, p. 28).

I. Kajon, who is the teacher of the Roman University "Sapienza", in her speech (Kajon, 2016, pp. 29-46) examines Passover from a historical-religious and historical-cultural point of view, as well as the role in the Seder ritual of bread and wine associated with the divine. Its establishment dates back to the time of Moses and the Exodus. They celebrate the deliverance from the Egyptian yoke and the people's entry into the path of serving the Lord by accepting and fulfilling His commandments. This is the holiday of freedom and the liberation of a group of people who, thanks to divine leadership, are established as a people (Kajon, 2016, pp. 29-30).

The food consumed and the reading of the Haggadah, an introduction to Jewish history and thought, a model for the transfer of knowledge from old people to the young, is of great importance on the Sedera, the Easter Supper prescribed by the Pentateuch, (Kajon, 2016, p. 33). It implies a free awareness of the past as the result of thinking about the passage of time from generation to generation (Kajon, 2016, p. 34). When comparing Pharaoh and Laban, it is emphasized that the destruction of the people is carried out not only by violent methods of the first but also by more refined means: organized and systematic exploitation, strangling of free manifestations of culture, labor, production, physical enslavement, etc. (Kajon, 2016, p. 35). god peopl anthropology religion

The four sons described in the book (sane, impartial, simpleton, and inexperienced) are quite different, thus, demands different languages: it would be a mistake to speak to them in the same way. However, each of them understands the meaning of the verses, glorifying the uniqueness of God, his good and righteous deeds in the world, and predicting the Messianic era (Kajon, 2016, p. 37).

Seder products play a ritual role, they are associated with a complex of ideas. Three matzos have placed the dish in the center of the table in the kearu. On Saturday, the feast is consecrated on thanksgiving to God, the creator of the fruit of life, and drinking wine. On Saturday, it is supposed to have on the table two whole loaves. The loaves are reminiscent of two portions of manna, which was collected during the wanderings in the wilderness on Friday in order not to defile the Sabbath rest with the extraction of food (Kajon, 2016, pp. 38-39). One matzah is refracted at the beginning of the Seder. There are two matzos enough. The “Lamb's Foot” testifies about the Passover sacrifice and about the fact that after the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem it is impossible to make a proper donation.

A boiled egg is a symbol of eternity without beginning and end, death and mourning, termination, and at the same time continuation of life. Bitter herbs are reminiscent of Egyptian slavery, and the fruit mixture, haroset, represents the mortar and clay used to erect masterpieces in honor of the pharaoh.

Seder is divided into thirteen stages (there are so many divine attributes in the tradition of Maimonides and the commandments of faith approved by him) (Kajon, 2016, p. 39). The regulation of the ritual does not restrict the freedom of the participants. The matzo reminds of the lack of time for leavening bread for those leaving Egypt, and it has as well a Messianic meaning. It becomes the hymn: “Now we are here, next year we will be in the land of Israel; this year we are slaves, next year we will be free people” (Kajon, 2016, p. 40). The leaven of evil must be destroyed (Kajon, 2016, pp. 40-41).

Matzah is a symbol of the material and moral misfortunes of the Jews before receiving liberation from God through the commandments and laws. Tradition says that Jews who lived in Egypt constantly ate such bread. At the same time, it is a redemption: it indicates the achievement of blessing, not burdened by evil.

Wine speaks about the joy of the holiday, sanctified by the Lord and free from worries. According to Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi (the 3rd century), the four bowls are symbols of the Kingdoms that ruled Israel (Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, and Roman) after which the sons of Jacob and all people will receive deliverance from pain and oppression, as well as freedom. Rabbi Guna connected them with the stages of the liberation of the Jews: God gave them to work under the command of the Egyptians, freed them from slavery, forced them to leave the country, and accepted them as his people (Kajon, 2016, pp. 4142).

In the Seder ritual, the dead in itself gains a soul and becomes alive throughout its direction towards spiritual activity. Bread and wine form understanding that things that come from nature will remain in nature. They will stay unchangeable even if be revealed in the moral and intellectual sense. In Judaism, they are never transformed into something different from what they are an insensible reality, but they indicate something purely intelligible. The divine, since it is removed, is not completely definable and always remains elusive (Kajon, 2016, pp. 42-43).

Symbols have different and even opposite interpretations; their meaning is not determined once and forever. In other words, they preserve the mysterious sides that are inaccessible to humans. F. Rosenzweig in "The Star of Salvation" argued that the sensible is not always spiritual, the sensible may be reached through the spiritual, but it remains the sensible even at the moment when it turns into something different from itself. This difference always remains hidden, even when it is expressed through the sensory and acquires meaning (Kajon, 2016, p. 43).

In the Old Testament and other sources, bread and wine are associated partly with a cult, partly with the welfare of not only the sons of Israel but also of other nations. In the Song of Moses, among the blessings extended by God to Israel, are names "fat wheat" and "wine, the blood of grapes" (the Song Deuteronomy 32, 14) (Kajon, 2016, p. 44).

In the Bible, bread and wine are both symbols of the divine and signs of civilization.

In the "Iliad" and "Odyssey", bread and wine are also mentioned as gifts used to gain the grace of the gods and receive guests, as the results of peaceful labor and fertility of the fields. The barbarians do not use them and eat only meat and dairy products, like the diligent shepherd Polypheus, who is not familiar with agriculture. Bread and wine presuppose a human mind and at the same time, being created from the fruits of the earth, testify to the laws, balance, fertility, and goodness of nature, since the gods live in it (Kajon, 2016, p. 44-45). They refer in a special way to the connection between people and gods, implying the respect of the first for the divine laws not only of the cosmos but also of the human world, demanding a search for ways to end violence, settlement of justice, rescue the poor and hungry, help the old and the needy, mercy to the suffering and conquered.

Ancient Greek and Jewish doctrines are united by the understanding of the objectivity of ethical measures, the need for divine laws on which the life of the cosmos and the city is based. However, the perception of time and the concept of God in the doctrines are different. Both religions recognize that without laws independent of man, originating from the dimension of eternity, life would be impossible for both nature and people in society. Comprehending the relationship between the cyclical time and the linear one, history, the Jews emphasized openness to the future, while the Greeks emphasized the importance of repetition.

Rethinking the relationship of the divine with nature and man the Jews considered God as the Creator and Person in connection with human reality, free from cause and effect inherent in natural reality. However, the Greeks considered the Creator, among other things, as an impersonal immanent principle of governing everything, in the eternity of nature, from which human reality is inseparable. Understanding, reflections on bread and wine unite both nations, famous for their centuries- old manuscripts, which have had a significant impact on the traditions of other peoples. They talk about the spirit that distinguishes man from animals and makes him like God, but God mortal whose body is destined to return to the earth (Kajon, 2016, p. 45).

H.N. Bastos in the speech "Christian Easter" (Bastos, 2016, pp. 47-60) defines the Eucharist as a Christian call to being. Since the late modern era, this ritual has been viewed outside the food dimension. Its importance focuses on symbolic meaning and catechesis.

According to M. Blondel, the mystical component prevails over the culinary one (Bastos, 2016, p. 47).

According to the Gnostics, the Son, by giving the Logos and the Spirit, makes people partake in the complete knowledge (gnosis) of the Father. The celebration of the Eucharist anticipates a ritual that will take place at the end of time. Food turns not into flesh, but the spirit (Bastos, 2016, pp. 48-49). The ritual contains the possibility of discovering perfect knowledge, it is involved in the generation of the divine. Bread and wine are deified because they are a means of conveying the dynamics of the pleroma.

According to Calvin's interpretation, the Body of Christ is in the heavenly abode. They become partakers of it thanks to the Holy Spirit.

According to W. Zwingli, the Eucharist nourishes not the body, but faith.

According to M. Luther's views, "real identification", the combination of the flesh and blood of Christ with bread and wine, occurs only during the ritual.

In the teachings of the reformers, the Eucharist is the nourishment of faith, not the body, the Lord's forgiveness of the people's sins (Kajon, 2016, pp. 49-50).

According to the doctrine of transfiguration (the 20th century), the food isn't important, the significance is in attaching to eating it, to the celebration of real participation. Thus, a departure from the sacramental and dogmatic elements of the ritual is carried out in favor of private piety. They partake to strengthen the faith.

However, in the vision of the Catholic Church, communion also means food (Kajon, 2016, p. 51). Considering the "Culinary context of Judaism and the innovations of Christianity" (Bastos, 2016, pp. 51-53), Bastos notes that Jesus at the Last Supper introduced rituals that profoundly transformed the mutual meal from the saving act of God on Christian Easter.

Sacrifice in Judaism is brought out of gratitude (Leviticus, 7, 12-18). Before receiving the gift of the Resurrection, Jesus expressed gratitude for what he would receive --his life in the flesh. Bread and wine at the Eucharist are interpreted not only as symbols of His flesh and blood but also as true flesh and blood. This gift means metaphorical eating or strengthening in faith: this is the Flesh, given for the life of the world (John 6, 51). They give the human flesh the seed of eternal life, thanks to which you can be resurrected on the day of the Last Judgment (Bastos, 2016, p. 53).

Irenaeus of Lyon affirmed the impossibility of the integrity of human nature, he saw a singular way of Rebirthing in atonement for sins by His Blood (Ephesians 1, 7) and gaining the cup of blessing, communion with the Blood of Christ (Bastos, 2016, p. 57). The Eucharist restores in the flesh the original project of God the Father, generates community, the Church (Bastos, 2016, p. 59). The essence of Christianity is defined by the author as a mutual meal, and the Eucharist is a means of modeling communication and community (Bastos, 2016, p. 61).

M.K. Morselli, the chairman of the Roman Society of Judeo-Christian Friendship, proposes to reflect on:

1) the meaning of the fruit eaten by Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden;

2) the Seder of Tu bi-Shvat;

3) bread and wine offered by Melchizedek to Abram;

4) the Seder of Passover;

5) the therapists' meal;

6) the Shabbat table.

All these rituals he considers as a presentation of an anthology of the Scriptures and the traditions of Israel, as important stages in the history of mankind and the possible anticipation of its further development (Morselli, 2016, pp. 61.

P.A. Ifantis, the lecturer at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in his speech “Collecting and Sharing Gifts: Anthropological Aspects of the Eucharistic Meal” (Yfantis, 2016, pp. 65-71), emphasizes that the realism of biblical verses prevents the cultivated opposition of the spirit and the body. The opposition was formed centuries ago and stays widespread nowadays. This opposition is considered the body as an enemy of the spirit, the body as a rival of the divine. The opposition creates a theological, cosmological, and anthropological dualism, alien to the Judeo-Christian heritage (Yfantis, 2016, p..

Food became the Creator's gift to a person, therefore, a testimony of communication between him/ her and God. Thanks to her materiality, the man could not only survive but also develop the qualities and charisma to approach "the image of God", as defined by the biblical terminology (Genesis 1, 27). Food provision is associated with manual labor, responsible care of the land, efficient organization of cultivation, and fair distribution of products (Genesis 2.15) (Yfantis, 2016, pp. 65. Food serves as the proof of Divine Guardianship, as the act of unity and love. By deciding to partake of the fruit of the forbidden tree, the man broke God's trust by separating his life from the theocentric pastoral of divine bounty. Since food became an imperative demand for autonomous survival and individual improvement following the formulation "you will be like gods" (Genesis 3.5). This formulation seems to be close to the definition of "similarity", but opened a new, completely different path, showing the tragic consequences of human choice. The road of similarity meant walking with God for the sake of final identification with Him. A different path meant a

break in unity with the Creator, which led to self-deification. This different way led a person to idolatry before himself. The seemingly insignificant offense projected its existential burden on each subsequent step of a person, resulting in tension and a plurality of social conflicts, all kinds of inhuman power based on property, economic power, and control over production structures (Yfantis, 2016, pp. 66-67).

In the Old Testament, the abundance of goods and food is understood as a reality, as well as a symbol of prosperity and divine kindness. God has guaranteed food for the Chosen People and the Chosen Believers, even in difficult times. However, it was to be offered and consumed with compatriots, parents, friends, and foreigners.

Patristic theology saw in the parable of Abraham's hospitality a reflection of a triune deity. The three angels at the dinner table indicate the relational depth of the divine and human ontology, the generosity of the owner indicates the proper position of man concerning the good. Abraham offered to the guests' food as God's gift, and, thus, turned His gift into an opportunity to meet, relate, and unite (Yfantis, 2016, pp. 67-68). Personal identity is realized in openness, it breaks down the stifling walls of self-contained subjectivity or narcissistic individualism. This dimension and the fundamental role of nourishment is manifested in the act of Jesus, offering Himself as food and drink. The Church before transforming into the institute presented itself to the world as a group of "children of God scattered around the world" (John 11:52) who gathered at the liturgical table to eat the flesh and drink the blood of Christ. Lately, it acquired the qualities of an integrated religion as a hierarchical structure with institutional weight, social prestige, and economic power.

In the Orthodox tradition, a priest, even a bishop or patriarch, cannot celebrate the Eucharist alone in an empty church (Yfantis, 2016, pp. 68-69). It is required the presence of at least two believers, constituting the minimum core of the church community and guaranteeing the presence of Jesus Christ ("For where two or three are gathered in my name, there I am in the midst of them”) (Matthew 18:20). This meal of unity, manifested in the brotherly relationship of believers, presupposes reconciliation between heaven and earth, transcendental and immanent, eternity and finitude. From this perspective, the correlation between the Church and the Eucharist is explained: the first is the Spouse of the Crucified One and the Body of Christ; the second is an event that continues the Incarnation, the Passion of Christ, and the Resurrection of the God-Man in the world and history. It is important to emphasize the material since at the Last Supper Jesus distributed his material body and blood among his disciples and future generations.

The Easter feast does not generate, but regenerates a person, returns him his essence of the “divine animal” who gave God a human face, as Gregory of Nyssa emphasizes. The Eucharist, overcoming the boundaries of time and space, acquires cosmic and eschatological dimensions and makes believers, according to Nicolas Cabasilas, participants of the heavenly feast. According to Christos Yannaras, the meeting time and space is the realization and demonstration of the Kingdom of God (Yfantis, 2016, p. 70). The transforming dynamics of the sacrament concern not only the Eschaton but also the current life. It invites a person to celebrate the continuation of the “liturgy after liturgy” outside the walls of the church, in their relationship with the other, near and far, inside and outside the community, in various social environments, etc.

The doxological productivity of grace, an act of respect and love, invites man to make his existence the Eucharist, to transform the whole world into it. To become involved in it means to live with joy and gratitude for everything, to exist for others thanks to him and his benefit because the true sacrifice consists in serving one's neighbor (Irenaeus of Lyons). In addition to other sacred and spiritual aspects, the Eucharistic feast indicates the need for food on every table. Not only as a means of survival but also as a dynamic realization of the theocentric and relational human hypostasis in their perfection. The Eucharistic feast is a nodal point representing the cruciform dimension of human identity as well. These dimensions are represented by vertical (with God) and horizontal (with neighbors and with everything created) relationships.

Conclusions

The conference made a significant contribution to understanding the role of food in religions from primitive beliefs to Judaism and Christianity. The participants emphasize the importance of food as a necessary human need. Nutrition is considered an important factor in the formation of human and social identity, society itself, the relationship between the individual and society, as well as relations between peoples and countries. The scientists underline the necessity to revise the views cultivated for centuries, to rethink widespread opposition of the material and spiritual dimensions, of the sinful body and the human soul. They emphasize the necessity of food both for the body and soul. The evolution of the sacrificial feast from the primitive to the Jewish Seder and the Christian Eucharist is also traced with a deep understanding of the prevailing rituals, their symbolic and material significance. The role of food was reaffirmed as an essential means of bringing together and strengthening cooperation between people and cultures.

REFERENCES

1. Bello, Ales A. (2016). Banchetto e sacrificio: alimento del corpo, alimento dello spirito. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6) Milano: Vita e pensiero. Р. 19-28.

2. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale (2016). Milano, Universita cattolica dell Sacro Cuore 7-9 ottobre 2015/ a cura di G.Co^mbo (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero. 200 р.

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4. Kajon, I. (2016). La Pasque ebraica. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. Р. 29-45.

5. Morselli, M.C. (2016). A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione / a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero. Р. 61-64.

6. Tomasi, S.V., mons., C.S. (2016). Il cibo nella Bibbia: Via di comunuine. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6) Milano: Vita e pensiero. Р. 3-15.

7. Yfantis, P.A. (2016). Accogliere e condividere i doni: Aspetti antropologici del banchetto eucaristico. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero. Р. 65-71.

СПИСОК ВИКОРИСТАНИХ ДЖЕРЕЛ

1. Bello, Ales A. Banchetto e sacrificio: alimento del corpo, alimento dello spirito // A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6) Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. Р. 19-28.

2. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione: Atti del convegno internazionale. Milano, Universita cattolica dell Sacro Cuore 7-9 ottobre 2015/ a cura di G.Coloеmbo (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. 200 р.

3. Bastos, J.N. La Pasqa cristiana // A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. Р. 47-60.

4. Kajon, I. La Pasque ebraica // A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. Р. 29-45.

5. Morselli, M.C. A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione / a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. Р. 6164.

6. Tomasi, S.V., mons., C.S. Il cibo nella Bibbia: Via di comunuine // A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6) Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. Р. 3-15.

7. Yfantis, P.A. Accogliere e condividere i doni: Aspetti antropologici del banchetto eucaristico // A tavola con Dio e con gli uomini: Il cibo tra antropologia e relicione/ a cura di Colombo G. (Filosofia ed esperienza religiosa; 6). Milano: Vita e pensiero, 2016. Р. 65-71.

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