Ethnic density effects on cultural distance and adjustment: The case of Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa

ETHNIC DENSITY EFFECTS ON ACCULTURATION AND ADJUSTMENT: THE CASE OF ZIMBABWEAN IMMIGRANTS LIVING IN JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA

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NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS»

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

Master's Program «Applied Social Psychology»

Eustacia Morris

Ethnic density effects on cultural distance and adjustment: The case of Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa

Thesis Paper

2019



TABLE OF CONTENTS

south africa immigration discrimination psychosis

Abstract

Introduction to the Study

Chapter 1: Theoretical background

1.1 Immigration as a risk factor in the lives of immigrants

1.1.1 Acculturative stress

1.1.2 Mental health outcomes

1.1.3 Satisfaction with life

1.2 Cultural distance

1.3 Social support

1.4 Discrimination

1.5 Ethnic density and its role in immigrant's wellbeing

1.6 Setting of the current study: South Africa

1.7 Hypotheses formulation and grounding

Chapter 2: Methodology

2.1 Sample

2.2 Procedure and research design

2.3 Variables

2.4 Measures

2.4.1 Cultural distance index

2.4.2 Center for Epidemiologic studies Depression Scale (CES-D)

2.4.3 The Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE-P15)

2.4.4 Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS)

2.4.5 Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS).

2.4.6 Perceived Ethnic Density Scale (ED)

2.4.7 Perceived Discrimination Scale (PERDS)

2.5 Design and analyses

Chapter 3: Results

3.1 Data integrity

3.2 Correlations

3.3 Mediation

3.4 Moderation

Chapter 4: Discussion

Chapter 5: Conclusion

5.1 Implications

5.2 Limitations and strengths

5.3 Future research

5.4 Conclusions

References

Appendix



ABSTRACT

The ethnic density (ED) effect hypothesized that people residing in areas with people from the same ethnic group are likely to experience better well-being and higher life satisfaction. Increased social support and decreased discrimination have been shown to act as mediators of this effect. However, there is little research on perceived ethnic density effects and in migrants living in South Africa, and it is unknown how this variable interacts with cultural distance. The study used online questionnaires to assess ethnic density, cultural distance, life satisfaction, discrimination, social support, depression and psychosis among immigrants. (N=289) Zimbabwean participants living in South Africa took part in the study. ED was positively associated with higher life satisfaction, but not with depression and psychosis. ED also moderated the relation between cultural distance and psychosis, but not in the expected direction. Furthermore, the ED mediational hypothesis was not confirmed, which resulted in exploratory analyses.

Key words: Immigration, Immigrants, ethnic density, discrimination, cultural distance, satisfaction with life, social support, depression, psychosis



INTRODUCTION

An immigrant is an individual living in a foreign country with people from diverse cultural backgrounds (Berry, 2006). According to Spector (2004) and Borjas (2014), immigration is a major transition in the lives of immigrants and can be characterized by many challenges resulting from the interaction between diverse cultural groups, which cause them to experience psychological stress in the acculturation process. According to Redfield, Linton and Herskovits (1936), acculturation, is the cultural change that transpires when two or more groups are in continuous contact with each other. A possible link may exist between cultural distance (CD) and the acculturation of immigrants (Ahadi & Puente-Dнaz; Galchenko, & Van de Vijver, 2007). According to Berry (1997) the perceived cultural distance between two different cultures is an important factor in acculturation outcomes. Furthermore, Babiker et al., (1980) introduced this cultural distance concept to assist in explaining the stress experienced by immigrants during acculturation (Suanet & Van De Vijver, 2009). Cultural distance looks at the degree to which groups differ culturally, in terms of language, religion, family and marriage life and values (Triandis, 1994). According to Demes and Geeraert (2013), the greater the difference between two cultures, the more challenging it is to adapt (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002).

Discrimination has also been found to have an impact on the acculturation of immigrants and linked to depression (Kolarcik, Geckova, Reijneveld, & Van Dijk, 2015). In contrast, numerous studies have shown that higher levels of social support may reduce the negative effects of discrimination among immigrant groups (Ajrouch et al., 2010; Kateri & Karademas, 2018; Kolarcik et al., 2015; Pascoe & Richman, 2009). Studies by Whitley (2006) suggested that immigrants residing in areas of high co-ethnic concentration may report enhanced social support and fewer experiences of discrimination (see also Das-Munshi et al., 2012).

The ethnic density (ED) effect refers to the concept that members of ethnic minority groups may experience better physical and psychological wellbeing when residing in areas with a higher proportion of people from the same ethnic group (Feng, Vlachantoni, Falkingham, & Evandrou, 2016). Recent years have seen a rise in the amount of studies examining ED effects on health, however, the literature is still characterized by inconclusive findings with its effects being inconsistent across ethnic groups (Becares, Dewey, Stansfeld, & Prince, 2012; Denton, Shaffer, Alcantara, & Cadermil, 2016; Feng et al., 2016; Juan, Awerbuch-Friedlander, & Levins, 2016; Jurcik et al., 2013, 2014, 2015).

Although there has been increasing research literature examining the intersection of ED and adjustment there seems to be little research on Zimbabweans specifically on this topic. There also seems to be no existing literature on ethnic density and cultural distance examined together. While higher ethnic density may be linked to better wellbeing, simultaneously lower CD may also be linked to better wellbeing (Beiser, Puente-Duran, & Hou, 2015; Detollenaere, Baert, & Willems, 2017). In addition, just like acculturation which has been studied extensively with ethnic density, cultural distance has also been recognized as a natural predictor of acculturation (Detollenaere et al., 2018). Recent evidence found that ethnic density was considered to serve as a moderator of the link between acculturation and adjustment in immigrants living in Canada (e.g., Jurcik et al., 2013), and it appears possible but still unclear, as to whether ethnic density may also change the strength of the negative relation between cultural distance and adjustment. These reasons had an influence on why I chose to look at ethnic density and cultural distance together.

My research will be the first of its kind among this African group; looking at ethnic density together with cultural distance; and will look at additional variables, e.g. discrimination and social support. Statistics show that Zimbabweans make up the largest group of foreign migrants in South Africa (Documented immigrants in South Africa, 2012). In addition, most research on this subject has focused on depression and anxiety experienced by immigrants, but fewer studies have focused on psychosis and satisfaction with life. The current study will be focusing on psychosis together with depression and life satisfaction. Previous research has found an inflated risk of psychosis and other mental health problems among some immigrant groups (Bourque, Van der Ven, & Malla, 2010; Schofield, Das-Munshi, Becares, & Agerbo, 2017). The current research intends to answer three major questions:

1. Is living in a high ethnic density area associated with a better mental wellbeing for immigrants living in South Africa?

2. Is reduced cultural distance associated with a better mental wellbeing for immigrants living in South Africa?

3. What are the mediating and moderating effects of cultural distance and ethnic density on acculturation and adjustment in this group of migrants?

The main aim of this research was to further unpack the ethnic density effect on the psychological adjustment of immigrants in a different population with a range of psychological outcome variables. In addition, it aimed at studying relations between ethnic density, cultural distance, discrimination and social support in the lives of Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa and lastly extend on the previous work by Jurcik et al., (2013, 2015) on immigrants living in Canada.

This research will expand and contribute to the area of ethnic density effects in relation to the adjustment of immigrants. It will also help determining if there really is an interplay between ethnic density, cultural distance and adjustment variables. It will help in detecting the mediating and moderating effects of ethnic density. Lastly, unravelling the effects of ethnic density and elaborating on the results of the original studies by; Jurcik et al., 2015 may help in verifying ethnic density effects and highlight important issues about Zimbabweans living in South Africa which will assist immigration and government agencies in creating policies.



CHAPTER 1: Theoretical background

Literature review

1.1 Immigration as a risk factor in the wellbeing of immigrants

Immigration is the movement of people or groups from one dwelling to another (Anup, 2008). Recently, immigration has been found to be making headlines because of globalization and open borders making it easier for immigrants to move around the world (Anup, 2008). Immigration is consistently ranked among the top five world issues in recent history with an estimated 191 million immigrants globally, with this figure having doubled over the past years (United Nations, 2017). It is suggested to be growing faster than the world's population resulting in a surge of immigrants from 2.8 percent in 2000 to 3.4 per cent in 2017 (United Nations, 2017). Statistics show the USA, Germany and Russia to have the largest number of immigrants (United Nations, 2017).

Immigration comes with some challenges and is inherently stressful (Kirmayer et al., 2010). It involves a major shift from one socio-economic system and culture to another leading to disruption of one's social life (Kirmayer et al., 2010; Levitt, Lane, & Levitt, 2005). According to Kirmayer et al., (2010), individuals who immigrate leave behind their loved ones who are important sources of social, emotional and financial support. When immigrants arrive in a new country they encounter downward migration, loss of social support, experience language difficulties, uncertainty about the future and discrimination, which could result in mental health problems and psychological distress (Kirmayer et al., 2010).

1.1.1 Acculturative stress

Acculturation is a process that may lead to psychological and cultural change resulting from contact between cultural groups (Sam & Berry, 2010). These changes and challenges of immigration are related to acculturative stress, an immigrant's response to life events associated with intercultural contact (Berry, 2006; Jurcik et al., 2014). This stress is a result of the shared and contradictory requirements of being part of a new culture and may lead to various forms of psychopathology including mood disorders (Berry, 2006). The process of adjusting to the mainstream culture can be a stressful process, requiring both psychological and socio-cultural adaptations (Berry, 1997). According to Huang, Appel, and Ai (2011) culture shock, lack of social support, discrimination, cultural distance and difficulties learning a new language and customs.

Although immigration results in opportunities for many families, it is also a stressful process for them (Walsh, Shulman, & Maurer, 2008). Even though the move may be necessary, it can lead to trauma, as well as emotional and psychological fluctuations in the lives of immigrants (Sandhu et al., 2012). In my study the mental disorders I will be focusing on include depression and psychosis. The reason for this choice is because research has found a preeminent risk of psychosis, depression and anxiety disorders among immigrant groups (Cantor-Graae, & Selten, 2005; Denton, Shaffer, Alcantara, & Cadermil, 2016; Lanning, 2011; Schofield et al., 2017).

1.1.2 Mental Health outcomes

Depression is a disorder that significantly causes an individual to experience depressed mood, guilt, sense of worthlessness and sleep difficulties often resulting in fatigue (Marcus et al., 2012). Depression is considered as the top cause of ill health worldwide (World Health Organization, 2017). Many studies conducted in USA, UK, Luxembourg and Canada, found depression to be the most common mental disorder experienced in immigrants (Nwoye, 2009; Sandhu et al., 2012; Tomita, Labys, & Burns, 2014; Walsh et al., 2008; World Health Organization, 2017).

Schizophrenia, a severe psychotic disorder, is ranked by the World Health Organization as one of the chief causes of long-term disability (Ьstьn et al., 1999). Psychosis occurs when an individual's thoughts and emotions are so impaired that they lose contact with external reality (Ьstьn et al., 1999). Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders have been widely reported among numerous ethnic minority groups (Bourque et al., 2010; Cantor-Graae & Selten, 2005; Das-Munshi et al., 2012; Schofield et al., 2017). Researchers suspect that the social practices of immigrant groups after immigration contribute to their elevated risk (Cantor-Graae & Selten, 2005). Psychosis among some immigrant groups is estimated to be greater than most other risk factors including depression and anxiety (Lanning, 2011). In a study by Berg et al. (2011) results showed that the highest risk for psychosis was among immigrants from Africa, in comparison to immigrants from other continents. Their study concluded that environmental stressors such as discrimination, experienced by immigrants led to the development of psychosis (Berg et al., 2011).

1.1.3 Satisfaction with life

Immigration also has an impact on one's level of life satisfaction, a self-reflexive assessment and judgment of how well things are going in an individual's life (Argyle, 2001). Life satisfaction provides important information about how well people manage life situations, which has resulted in much research being conducted to understand factors determining its importance for individuals (Knies, Nandi, & Platt, 2016). Studies show that immigrants are less satisfied with their lives than mainstream culture populations (Knies et al., 2016). Research by Knies et al. (2016) found that factors like inequality, deprivation and discrimination lead to decreased life satisfaction. However, the kind of neighbourhood one lives in also contributes to life satisfaction (Kahneman & Krueger, 2006). Finally, psychologists and other health professionals have reported that individuals who have a greater amount of close relationships tend to report higher levels of life satisfaction (Vroome & Hooghe, 2013).

To sum up this section on immigration, acculturative stress, the experiences of immigrants had an impact on both their mental health and influenced their levels of life satisfaction. Studies have also found a link between cultural distance and the adaptation and acculturation of immigrants, revealing that greater cultural distance was related to more problems for immigrants, hence making it more difficult to adapt (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002; Morosini, Shane, & Singh, 1998).

1.2 Cultural distance

The cultural distance (CD) concept was introduced in 1980 by Babiker, Cox, and Miller to provide an explanation for the distress immigrants experienced after immigration (Suanet & Van De Vijver, 2009). Cultural distance is the degree to which one's cultural norms, beliefs, values, attitudes, traditions, opinions, and perceptions differ from another cultural group (Ahadi et al., 2011; Raza, Singh, & Dutt, 2002). In addition, Babiker et al., (1980) referred to cultural distance not just in terms of differences, but also the similarities shared by two cultures regarding; climate, language, education and religion. These cultural differences and perceptions make it difficult to comprehend the behaviour of others which could result in conflict, distress and may affect the well-being of immigrants (Tadesse & White, 2008). Research by Suanet and Van De Vijver (2009) found greater CD between two cultures to influence psychological adjustment among immigrants.

A link may exist between cultural distance and the acculturation of immigrants (Ahadi et al., 2007). Research by Ahadi and Puente-Dнaz (2011) found that the extent immigrants everyday activities were comparable to their own ethnic group, and different from the mainstream culture, the less the degree of mainstream acculturation. One study conducted with Russian foreign exchange students in the Netherlands found greater cultural distance between heritage and mainstream culture to have a significant, but small, effect on their adjustment (Suanet & Van de Vijver, 2009). In this same study, they indicated that perceived cultural distance was a much stronger predictor of adjustment outcomes in comparison to acculturation (Galchenko & Van de Vijver, 2007; Suanet & Van de Vijver, 2009). The overall and consistent finding is that the greater the cultural differences, the less positive the adaptation (Beiser et al., 2015; Demes & Geeraert, 2013). For instance, one study examined the perceived CD using exchange students in Russian universities. Their findings revealed that participants from former USSR nations such as Georgia, Uzbekistan and Ukraine, reported less perceived cultural distance, and acculturated better than students from countries like USA and Japan (Galchenko & Van de Vijver, 2007; Demes & Geeraert, 2013). Other studies conducted in Russia with exchange students from various countries across the continents, found cultural distance to be a critical factor in the process of acculturation and perceived it to be associated with less adjustment (Berry, 1997).

1.3 Social Support

Social support plays a significant role in the lives of immigrants as they try to adjust in to a new environment (Salinero-Fort et al., 2013). It includes the psychological, material and emotional resources one receives from others (Salinero-Fort et al., 2013). Social support arises from multiple sources, including family, friends and the society one lives in (Hovey & King, 1996; Kateri & Karademas, 2018). This support could be in the form of psychological and material resources as well as informational and instrumental support provided to individuals needing assistance (Stewart et al., 2008). This kind of support could include providing immigrants with emotional support and information concerning housing and employment in the host country and help them gain access to material needs (Stewart et al., 2008).

Furthermore, social support helps promote healthy behaviour and is a key determinant in the enhancement of health and wellbeing of immigrants as it serves as a safeguard against the psychological effects of stress (Nicdao, Hong, &Takeuchi, 2008; Stewart, 2000; Warner, 2007). Social support also improves the mental health of immigrants, while deficiency of it is harmful (Palinkas et al., 2003). In a study conducted among Russian-speaking immigrants in Montreal, Canada, acquiring social support was identified as playing a mediating role between co-ethnic neighbourhood concentration and psychological adjustment (Jurcik et al., 2015).

1.4 Discrimination

Other than potential difficulties obtaining adequate social support, discrimination is a crucial hindrance in immigrants hoping to integrate to a new country and cultural setting (Correll, 2010). Discrimination is the negative and oftentimes inexcusable behaviour of people towards another, often (minority group) and its members (Correll, 2010). It is thought to be a result of differences in culture and language (Williams & Mohammed, 2008). In numerous studies, it was found that immigrants who had a different skin colour or were culturally different from the majority were at a greater risk of suffering discrimination (Williams & Mohammed, 2008).

Discrimination reduces the wellbeing of immigrants and causes adverse psychological outcomes (Jurcik et al., 2013). Studies found that minority standing was linked to feelings of discrimination which then led to acute depression and other mental health problems among immigrants (Berg et al., 2011; Pascoe & Richman, 2009). According to Duru and Poyrazli (2011), discrimination hinders the development of social connections and reduces one's sense of belonging. They also found that the level of cultural difference between the heritage and mainstream culture brought about many challenges, including discrimination (Duru & Poyrazli, 2011). Discrimination may be more likely perceived in ethnically sparser neighbourhoods, whose members may be less aware or tolerant of minority immigrant groups (Jurcik et al., 2013, 2014). Correspondingly, Jurcik et al., (2013) hypothesised an acculturation-ecology fit where it was suggested that there were increased benefits for immigrants living in areas of high ethnic concentration, especially if they identified with their heritage culture in comparison to sparser neighbourhoods. Furthermore, reduced discrimination was found to be a mediator between neighbourhood co-ethnic concentration and higher levels of adjustment (Jurcik et al., 2013).

1.5 Ethnic density and its role in immigrant's wellbeing

According to Roux and Mair (2010) ethnic density (ED) is the proportion of individuals of a given ethnicity in a geographic area. The ED effect protects immigrants from mental health problems, although the mechanisms remain unclear (Bйcares et al., 2012; Feng et al., 2016; Jurcik et al., 2013, 2014). Much of the research conducted has also found ethnic density as having a protective effect with the mental health of immigrants, although this is not always the case (Denton et al., 2016; Juan et al., 2016; Zhang, Beauregard, Kramer, & Bйcares, 2017). Studies conducted in Canada on Russian speaking immigrants revealed that perceived ED protected immigrants from depression and increased their levels of social support (Bйcares et al., 2012; Jurcik et al., 2014, 2015).

In studies conducted by Jurcik et al. (2013), perceived ethnic density served as a moderator between heritage acculturation and adjustment. Heritage acculturation was seen to be a protective factor in high ethnic density contexts (Jurcik et al., 2014; Miller, Wang, Szalacha, & Sorokin, 2009). However, despite agreement by many authors on the generally protective role of ethnic density, negative effects have also been found (Denton et al., 2016; Feng et al., 2016; Jurcik, et al., 2014). My research will shed light on the ethnic density effect in a different immigrant sample and attempt to provide some insight in to these disputes.

1.6 Setting of the current study: South Africa

Research has shown that people immigrate from one country to another for a variety of complex reasons with some being forced to move because of conflict and escape from persecution, while others simply move voluntarily (Factsheet, 2016). Idemudia et al. (2013) found political and economic instability, environmental degradation and civil unrest to be some of the many reasons leading to immigration. According to Tomita, Labys and Burns (2014) immigrants over the continent move to South Africa to pursue new opportunities or to escape difficult conditions in their home countries. Zimbabweans started to immigrate to South Africa during the year 2000 when the country experienced an economic collapse (Tomita et al., 2014). Reports from the South African immigration factsheet (2016) have shown that Zimbabwe and few other neighbouring countries were among the top source countries for immigration to South Africa.

When looking at factors drawing people to move to another country, South Africa has a relatively stable government and good infrastructure (Factsheet, 2016). Because of this, South Africa is viewed as a central destination for many people in search of improved socio-economic opportunities, resulting in many Zimbabweans immigrating for these reasons (Factsheet, 2016). However, a lack of research exists on cultural distance, ethnic density, and adjustment outcomes for Zimbabweans living within the South African context (Detollenaere et al., 2017; Idemudia et al., 2013). Hence the current study attempts to fill this gap.

To conclude this chapter, a vast amount of research has found immigration to be a major issue worldwide resulting in many challenges among immigrants. It has resulted in adjustment difficulties, health problems, unjust treatment and loss of social support (Kirmayer et al., 2010). Moreover, greater cultural distance may lead to discrimination, lower satisfaction with life and mental health problems (Beiser et al., 2015; Kirmayer et al., 2010). However, further research found ethnic density and potentially related variables such as social support, cultural similarity, less discrimination and satisfaction with life to protect immigrants from these challenges as it is believed that living in an area with individuals from the same country leads to better outcomes. Numerous studies have corroborated this premise, but few have examined these variables in one study and in the South African context. For instance, little is known about how cultural distance and ethnic density may interact in predicting well-being outcomes in immigrants.

1.7 Hypotheses formulation and grounding

Based on the literature review, the hypotheses for the study are presented below with the moderation and mediation hypotheses being anchored in the general hypotheses. Given that there are relatively few studies guiding our work exploring ethnic density in combination with cultural distance, some of our hypotheses are tentative, leading us to also conduct some exploratory interaction and mediation analyses.

1. General Hypotheses

a) Perceived Ethnic density will be negatively associated with (i) depressive symptoms and (ii) psychotic symptoms and (iii) discrimination.

b) Perceived Ethnic density will be positively related to (i) social support and (ii) satisfaction with life.

c) Social support will be negatively related to (i) depressive symptoms, (ii) psychotic symptoms.

d) Social support will be positively correlated with life satisfaction.

e) Discrimination will be positively related to (i) depressive symptoms and (ii) psychotic symptoms.

f) Cultural distance will be positively related to (i) greater depressive and (ii) psychotic symptoms (iii) lower satisfaction with life.

2. Mediating Hypotheses

a) The relationship between perceived ethnic density and depressive and/or psychotic symptoms will be mediated by (i) higher levels of social support and/ or (ii) lower levels of discrimination

3. Moderating Hypotheses

a) Perceived Ethnic density would be expected to buffer the positive relationship between cultural distance and depressive and/or psychotic symptoms.



CHAPTER 2: Methodology

2.1 Sample

The target population for this study was 300 Zimbabwean males and females above 18, living, working and studying in Johannesburg for at least one year. The final sample generated 289 participants. The sample was predominantly male. The majority reported living in the Northern and central parts of Johannesburg. Most of the participants were working, others studying, doing both or had their own business, were retired or looking for jobs. (see Table 1 below).

2.2 Procedure and Research Design

To obtain participants, the research project was advertised on Gumtree and Olx. These are free well-known platforms in South Africa allowing individuals to sell products and advertise information. Twitter, Instagram and WhatsApp, which are also recognised social networking platforms were used. Snowball sampling was also used, where participants were asked to share the online survey with Zimbabwean friends and family members living in Johannesburg.

The research made use of online surveys, which were an easy way of collecting data and suitable for conducting descriptive as well as correlational studies (Denscombe, 1998). Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa were sent a link to a questionnaire consisting of 73 questions in total from seven different scales; the perceived ethnic density, culture distance, satisfaction with life, psychosis and depression, social support and discrimination scales. The institutional review board approved the ethics protocol of the study.

2.3 Variables

In the current study Ethnic Density was the independent variable. The dependent variables were satisfaction with life, depressive and psychotic symptoms. The mediating and moderating variables were social support, discrimination and cultural distance.

2.4 Measures

2.4.1 Cultural distance index

The index comprises 10 items (Suanet et al, 2009). The measure asks questions relating to differences and similarities that individuals find between their home culture in relation to the host culture (Suanet et al, 2009). These include: climate, food, language, clothes, religion, educational level, material comfort, family structure and family life, courtship and marriage and leisure activities. An example of an item is: “How similar or different do you ?nd the climate in Zimbabwe and in South Africa?” Responses are given on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very different) to 7 (very similar) (Suanet et al, 2009). Previous research has found the parameters to provide a suitable foundation for comparing two cultures; thus, the items were assessed as closely reflecting the daily lives of participants (Suanet et al, 2009). Internal consistency for the CD was good (б=.86).

2.4.2 Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D)

The CES-D comprises of 20 items regarding depression symptoms experienced by individuals (Lewinsohn, Seeley, Roberts, & Allen, 1997; Radloff; 1977). A sample item includes: “I thought my life had been a failure.” The respondents are required to rate the frequency of each item as it applied to them during the past week (Lewinsohn et al.,1997). These responses are based on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) to 3 (most or all of the time (5-7 days) (Lewinsohn et al., 1997; Radloff; 1977). Internal consistency of this scale was excellent (б=.90).

2.4.3 The Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE-P15) Questionnaire

The CAPE is a 15-item measure that assesses experiences of psychotic symptoms including paranoia and hallucinations (Capra, Kavanagh, Hides, Scott, 2015). The CAPE assesses how frequent these experiences occur and the amount of distress they create (Capra et al., 2015). An example of a question is: “Have you ever felt that you are being persecuted in anyway?” Responses to the items range from 1, (never), 2, (sometimes), 3, (often), to 4, (nearly always). (Capra et al., 2015). Internal consistency of the CAPE was found to be excellent in the current study (б=.92).

2.4.4 Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS)

The SWLS is a short 5-item measure designed to measure one's universal cognitive judgment of satisfaction with life (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith 1985). A sample item is: “In most ways my life is close to my ideal.” Responses to the questions range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (Kahneman, & Krueger 2006). The internal reliability and consistency of the SWLS was found to be good (б=.88).



2.4.5 Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS)

The MSPSS is a 12-item measure that assesses subjective social support from three main sources which include: family, friends, and significant others (Bruwer et al., 2008). An example of a question asked is: “There is a special person who is around when I am in need.” Responses range from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree) (Bruwer et al., 2008). The higher the scores, the greater the perceived adequacy of social support from each of the three sources of support (Bruwer et al., 2008). Internal consistency for the MSPSS was excellent in the current study (б=.94).

2.4.6 Perceived Ethnic Density Scale (ED)

This four-item scale provides an estimation of the participants neighbourhood ethnic concentration. A sample item is: “Please indicate to what extent you can access specialty products related to your ethnic group in your local area, within 15-20 minutes walking distance of your home” (Stafford, Becares, & Nazroo, 2009). The other three questions asked are related to proportion of others in the area, language and access to resources and organizations. Responses are given on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (none or hardly any) to 5 (almost all or all the local area) (Jurcik 2015; Stafford et al., 2009). Previous findings have shown this measure to correlate significantly and positively with census level (i.e., objective) ethnic density (Jurcik et al., 2015). Internal reliability for the ED was good in the current study (б=.82).

2.4.7 Perceived discrimination scale (PERDS)

The PERDS is an eight-item measure used to measure subjective experiences relating to harassment (Noh & Kaspar, 2003). An example of a question asked is: “Have you ever been hit or handled roughly?” Responses are given on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (all the time) (Noh & Kaspar, 2003). This measure was found to correlate with perceived ethnic density in previous research (Jurcik et al., 2013). Internal reliability of the PERDS was excellent in the current study (б=.93).

2.5 Design and analyses

The current study uses correlational and cross- sectional designs. Correlational designs measure, predict, score and explain the relationship between two or more variables (Creswell, 2012; Babbie, 2001). The current study looked at the correlation between ethnic density, cultural distance, satisfaction with life, social support, discrimination and depressive as well as psychotic symptoms. Using a correlational design allows for the measurement of several variables and their relationships and simultaneously presents scores using graphs and scatterplots (Creswell, 2012). Mediation analyses examined the mechanism through which perceived ethnic density operates in predicting adjustment outcomes. Moderation analyses examined whether ethnic density further interacts with cultural distance in predicting these outcomes. All data were analysed using SPSS v20 (IBM Corp, 2011) and PROCESS, a macro for SPSS used for mediation and moderation analyses which uses a bootstrapping procedure (Hayes, 2013).



CHAPTER 3: Results

3.1 Data Integrity

Prior to any analyses, the data was inspected for outliers and normality. This involved retaining participants who completed at least two-thirds of each multi-item measure, as an alternative to deleting incomplete responses. To deal with missing data, mean scores were calculated for participants who completed at least two-thirds of each multi-item measure. Outliers were identified for six measures, except ethnic density. These outliers were adjusted and winsorized to fall within ±3.3 standard deviations from the mean with the rank order preserved. After dealing with outliers, a normality test was conducted again. The Shapiro-Wilk- test was used in interpreting results since the number of participants in the current study was over 35 and under a sample size of 2000 (Razali, & Wah, 2011). When using this test, a p value of greater than .05 indicates normality (Razali, & Wah, 2011). In the current study the p value for ethnic density, cultural distance, life satisfaction, discrimination, social support, psychosis and depression were (p>.05), suggesting an approximately normal distribution. Kurtosis and skewness values were seen to be within limits since indicators were found to be below a total score of 2 for each multi-item variable (Kline, 2011).

3.2 Correlations

To test the general hypotheses and assess the relationship between the variables, correlation coefficients were examined. The correlation matrix (see Table 2) revealed that social support was negatively and significantly correlated with depression and psychosis. Cultural distance was also positively and significantly correlated with depression and psychosis. Next, discrimination was found to be positively and significantly correlated with psychosis, but not with depression. Perceived Ethnic Density (ED) had a positive correlation with satisfaction with life, but not with social support. However, One of the hypothesized correlations (ED) and (CAPE) was significant albeit in the reverse direction (r = .34, p< .01.), but lost significance once the data was winsorized.ED did not correlate with depression, psychosis, or discrimination. Social support also did not correlate with Satisfaction with life.

3.3 Mediation

For the third set of hypotheses, we originally planned a bootstrapped mediation analysis to test whether the relationship between perceived ethnic density (ED) and depressive (CES-D) and or psychotic (CAPE) symptoms will be mediated by higher levels of social support (MSPSS) and lower levels of discrimination (PERDS). However, since these variables were unrelated in the correlation matrix, mediation could not be significant. However, further inspection of the correlation matrix (see Table 2 above), indicated that cultural distance, psychosis, depression and social support were intercorrelated suggesting potential mediation. This was confirmed by further exploratory mediation analyses which were conducted to see whether the relations between cultural distance and psychotic and depressive symptoms (outcomes) would be mediated by higher levels of social support (see Figure 3).

Overall, model 1 was significant, F (1,278) = 18.29, R² = .06, p< .01 but model 2 with depression as the outcome was not. Firstly, results for model 1 indicated that low levels of CD were associated with more social support among Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa. Secondly, higher levels of social support were associated with lower levels of psychosis. Lastly, lower levels of CD were associated with decreased psychotic symptoms (see Figure 3). To test the indirect effect, bootstrapping analyses, which made the use of PROCESS (Hayes, 2013) verified that the indirect effect (.0451, SE = .0158) of cultural distance on CAPE through MSPSS was significant as the percentile corrected 95% confidence intervals did not include zero (.0163 to .0785). It can be concluded that social support mediated the relation between CD and psychotic symptoms.

Furthermore, an inspection of the correlation matrix suggested that other mediation models could be feasible. For instance, perceived ethnic density (ED), cultural distance (CD), and satisfaction with life (SWLS) were intercorrelated. A further exploratory analysis was thus run, but the model was not significant.

3.4 Moderation

For the moderation and the third set of hypotheses, analysis in PROCESS was conducted to examine moderation effects between ethnic density, cultural distance and symptoms (see Figures 1 and 2). In the first moderation analysis ethnic density (ED) was the predictor variable, cultural distance (CD) was the moderator variable and psychosis was the outcome. Significant interaction effects were found between ED and CD for psychotic symptoms, F(1,192) = 9.64, R²_ch = .05, p< .001. In the second moderation analysis, depression symptoms were included as the outcomes. Significant interaction effects were found once again between ED and CD, F (1,196) = 16.82, R²_ch = .14, p< .001.

Conditional effects for psychosis revealed that at higher values of the moderator (1 SD above mean for ED), there was a significant positive relation between CD and psychosis (Effect = 0.19; SE = 0.04, p< .001), and the relationship remained statistically significant for ED at the mean (Effect = 0.10; SE = 0.03, p< .001); however, at lower levels of ED, the CD effect was not significant (1 SD below mean: Effect = -0.00, SE = 0.04, p = .92).

Next, when examining the conditional effects for depression it was shown that at higher values of the moderator (1 SD above mean for ED) there was a significant positive relation between CD and depression (Effect = 0.28; SE = 0.04, p< .001), and just like with psychosis, the relation remained statistically significant for ED at the mean (Effect = 0.11; SE = 0.03, p< .001), but at lower levels of ED, it was not significant (1 SD below mean: Effect = -0.05, SE = 0.04, p = .15). Thus, both moderation analyses suggested that ED augmented CD as a risk factor for greater symptoms.



CHAPTER 4: Discussion

The current study focused on the perceived ethnic density effects on the adjustment of immigrants. The focus was to unpack the perceived ethnic density effect and examine its moderating and mediating effect on psychological adjustment using a different population with additional psychological outcome variables such as psychosis and life satisfaction and mediating variables such as CD, in addition to social support, discrimination and depression used in earlier research (Bйcares et al., 2012; Berg et al., 2011; Mui, Burnette, & Chen, 2011; Jurcik et al., 2013,2014,2015). It was aimed at studying the relationship between ED, CD and adjustment of Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa and lastly extend on previous work by Jurcik et al., (2013, 2015) on immigrants living in Canada. Overall, results were only partially consistent with the study's expectations and previous research.

Firstly, the hypothesis (1c) stating that social support would be negatively correlated with psychotic and depressive symptoms was confirmed. It was expected that immigrants with more social support would report less depressive and psychotic symptoms. The more social support Zimbabweans received was associated with less reports of depression and psychosis. These current findings were important because they substantiate existing research and corroborate the protective role of social support on immigrant's mental health (Harandi, Taghinasab, & Nayeri, 2017; Jurado, et al., 2017; Jurcik et al., 2013,2015).

Secondly, hypothesis (1f) stating that cultural distance would be positively correlated with psychosis and depression was also confirmed. This was another important finding that corroborated previous research results. The more different the mainstream culture was from the immigrant's own, the more difficult it would be for immigrants to adjust, which could have an impact on their mental health (Beiser et al., 2015; Galchenko & Van de Vijver,2007; O'Grady & Lane, 1996; Selmer, 2007). Notably, despite this research been done in a different continent and with a different ethnic group, it was corroborated by results from previous studies. Zimbabweans experiencing cultural differences living in South Africa regarding the language and the way of life could be associated the development of depression and psychosis.

Thirdly, it was expected that ED would be positively correlated with satisfaction with life and social support. The results partially supported this hypothesis, with ED found to be positively correlated with satisfaction with life, but not with social support. This finding suggests that living among people from the same ethnic group may have been valued by Zimbabweans, hence it was related to higher life satisfaction. This was consistent with previous research, where neighbourhood concentration of one's own ethnic group was found to be linked with higher life satisfaction (Bhugra, 2001; Knies et al., 2016; Kццts-Ausmees & Realo, 2016, Longhi, 2014).

However, contrary to the expectations, no correlation was found between ED and social support. Previous findings found high ED to be associated with greater social support (Denton et al., 2014; Jurcik et al., 2015), although other research failed to find an association (Jurcik et al., 2013). Furthermore, other research revealed cases in which ED was associated with less social support. In some immigrants, increase in ethnic density caused distress, as a result cultural conflict between the immigrant and their heritage culture (Bhugra, 2001; Chadwick & Collins, 2015). In the current study there was no association between these two variables which could suggest that the participants did not benefit from increased support when residing in more ethnically dense areas. In relation to this, a study conducted in UK, found that some groups, for example, Australians did not obtain necessary social support from living in areas with people from their own ethnic group (Bhugra, 2001). The results revealed that for them, living in these areas increased their distress and resulted in intra-cultural conflict which was in turn caused by low expression of emotions (Bhugra, 2001). Moreover, studies by Dominguez and Hombrados (2012) showed that support from friends belonging to the mainstream culture made immigrants feel more integrated. For Zimbabweans, it is possible that they received support from individuals from their own ethnic group, but they did not identify with this kind of support since they wanted to be more integrated with the mainstream culture instead.

Fourthly, discrimination was expected to be positively correlated with psychosis and depression. This hypothesis was partially supported with discrimination positively correlated with psychosis, but not with depression. The positive correlation between discrimination and psychosis was consistent with extant research findings showing that perceived discrimination was associated with reduced wellbeing of immigrants (Jurcik et al., 2013; Krieger et al., 2005; Williams & Mohammed, 2008). The more Zimbabweans perceived discrimination, the more they endorsed psychotic symptoms. However, the causal direction of this relation is unclear: it is possible that people with psychosis simply perceive greater threat in general due to the nature of their symptoms.

Although previous research suggested that higher levels of discrimination may be detrimental to the mental health of immigrants (see Jurcik et al., 2013, 2015, 2019) in the current study, no correlation was found between discrimination and depressive symptoms.

Next, the hypothesis stating that perceived ethnic density (ED) would be negatively correlated with psychosis, depression and discrimination was not confirmed. However, it is important to note that before winzorization (i.e., adjustment of outliers), there was an unexpected positive correlation between ED and psychosis. For Zimbabwean immigrants, the greater amount of people from the same ethnic group was associated with greater psychosis scores. This finding contrasts with previous research in which the majority of studies reported ethnic density to be a protective factor against depression and psychosis (Jurcik et al., 2014; Neeleman et al., 2001; Shaw et al., 2012; Stafford et al., 2009). However, as mentioned in the introduction, some discrepancies were also identified in ED literature where evidence revealed an inverse relationship between ED and good mental health (Becares et al., 2012; see also Jurcik et al.,2014). Other studies have also found curvilinear relationships (Bйcares et al., 2009; Shaw et al., 2012). According to Becares et al. (2012), these inconsistencies in the findings is believed to be due to the different ethnic groups, and the ranges of ethnic density in neighbourhoods, and the different approaches used in measuring ED. Results obtained in the current study could have been because this was one of the first ethnic density studies conducted in Africa using a Zimbabwean sample. Most ethnic density research was done on immigrants living in Canada, United Kingdom, and the United States of America, but not South Africa (Das-Munshi et al., 2012; Jurcik, 2013, 2015; Kwag et al., 2015). Furthermore, in the current study, a subjective indicator of ED was used, although previous studies generally found protective patterns with either objective or subjective measures (e.g. Jurcik et al., 2015).

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