Ethnic density effects on cultural distance and adjustment: The case of Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa

In addition, social support was not found to be positively correlated with satisfaction with life. For Zimbabwean immigrants, more social support was not associated with greater life satisfaction. This finding interestingly contrasts with previous research (Hooghe & Vanhoutte, 2011; Nicdao et al., 2008; Runyan et al., 1998; Stewart, 2000; Warner, 2007).

Furthermore, when looking at mediation, based on correlation results, social support and discrimination was not identified as a mediator between ED and symptoms. Although ED was found to be mediated by a form of discrimination or social support in previous studies (Jurcik et al., 2013, 2015), in the current study there were no significant correlations between similar variables. One possible explanation for this could be the small sample size and gender distribution. The current study only had 289 participants. On the other hand, perceived ED was measured, which was found to have significant relations in similarly sized and even smaller samples, even when an objective density measure was not significantly related to any outcomes (Jurcik et al., 2015).

Moreover, the mediational role of social support in the relationship between CD and psychosis was supported. (see Figure 3). This suggests that social support contributes partly to explaining the relation between cultural distance and psychosis. For Zimbabweans, greater CD was related to less social support, and less social support was associated with greater psychotic symptoms. These results were consistent with existing research, with previous studies revealing that social support immigrants received was a protective factor against psychological distress (Jurcik, 2014, 2019; Kateri & Karademas, 2018; Khusaifan & Keshky, 2017; Lai & Ma, 2016; Park & Roh, 2013).

ED played a moderating role with acculturation in previous research (e.g., Jurcik et al., 2013; Kwag et al., 2012; Miller et al., 2009). However, in this study, CD was included as a moderator variable. The moderation role of ED on the relationship between CD and psychosis was confirmed (see Figures 1 and 2 above). ED significantly moderated the relation between CD and symptoms, but not in the expected direction. These current findings display the crucial protective role of ED in immigrant's mental health. For the Zimbabwean sample, the more cultural distance they perceived, the more they endorsed depressive and psychotic symptoms. However, instead of ED buffering this relationship as originally expected, it strengthened the association between CD and symptoms. To explain this finding, it may be possible that Zimbabweans perceiving greater cultural distance and related acculturative stressors and symptomatic distress, moved to more ethically dense areas, hoping it would serve as a “psychic shelter” (Whitley, 2006). Since the study was not a longitudinal design, it is unclear what would transpire with respect to their adjustment had these participants been followed over time. Another possibility is that residing in an ethically concentrated area accentuates and aggravates the detrimental effects of cultural distance, as related stimuli in such neighbourhoods may potentially remind participants that they are “different” from the mainstream and integration will be psychologically stressful.

In summary, the current study partially corroborated previous research findings on cultural distance and ethnic density and adds to the research literature. ED and CD were examined together and were found to have a significant association. In the current study, ED significantly moderated the relation between CD and symptoms, but in the opposite direction. The results suggest that those who perceive CD are at a greater risk of symptoms if they also live in high ethnically dense areas. In contrast, ED was related to satisfaction with life, and hence ED may play a paradoxical role in the current study. Moreover, even though ED was found to be mediated by a form of discrimination or social support in previous studies, the current study found no significant correlations between these variables.



CHAPTER 5: Conclusion

5.1 Implications

The current study expanded the knowledge base of ethnic density research in to South Africa and provided important implications for research and practice. In the current study, no association was found between ED and symptoms, and this was contrary to existing studies (e.g. Bйcares et al., 2012; Jurcik et al., 2013, 2014; Shaw, 2012). Instead, ED was found to have an association with life satisfaction and CD suggesting that Zimbabweans living in high ethically dense areas were more satisfied with their lives and perceived less cultural distance. Furthermore, the current study is one of the first studies to examine the interaction between ED and CD together. ED significantly moderated the relation between CD and symptoms, but in the reverse direction. Instead of ED playing a buffering role, it was associated with increased depression and psychotic symptoms for Zimbabweans who perceived greater CD. This suggests that a certain subgroup of immigrants (i.e., minorities) may be especially prone to distressing symptoms.

In practice, with focus on the South African immigrant policy, the current findings, propose that government agencies could make changes to their policies regarding immigrants, while taking ethnic density effects and cultural distance in to consideration. In the current study, both these variables interacted in predicting poorer adjustment of Zimbabwean immigrants. Cultural integration programs such as diversity management could be introduced to better equip immigrants with cultural knowledge of the mainstream culture which could help them to adapt, similarly, having them appreciate cultural points of similarity, and not only difference, might be beneficial given the inverse relation between perceived CD and wellbeing across numerous studies (Liao, Henceroth, Lu & Leroy, 2016). According to Selten and Cantor-Graae (2005), certain communal environments such as those which resulted in less contact with the mainstream culture can be detrimental to the mental health outcomes of immigrants. As a result, it is important that immigrants are made aware of both the negative and positive effects of ethnic density as a way of preparing them to adapt to future situations in a foreign country. The current findings may further assist mental health practitioners and community psychologists in understanding how perceived socioecological contexts may interact with cultural distance in predicting the mental health of immigrants in South Africa, thus providing them with a starting point for developing tailored prevention and outreach programs.

5.2 Limitations and strengths

One of the limitations of this study was that it focused on perceptions, rather than objective facts regarding ethnic density and discrimination. Second, unlike the original studies conducted by Jurcik et al., (2013;2014) this study did not assess acculturation. This could have provided information that possibly may have helped to track the changes that took place among the Zimbabwean participants because of their continuous interaction with the South African population (Jurcik et al., 2013, 2014). Third, the current study made use of Likert type scales, which were developed for use with western cultures, thus raising concerns about their validity across cultures (Oyserman & Lee, 2008; Smith & Bond, 1998). To overcome these cross-cultural validity issues, a qualitative research design could be used which would provide more authentic and rich detail for the study (Kirkevold & Bergland, 2007). Another limitation was the relatively small sample size. A larger sample could be used in future for greater statistical significance (Burmeister & Aitken, 2012). Lastly, the current study was a cross- sectional one, making it impossible to determine from the results obtained whether living in a high ED area precedes better satisfaction with life and lower CD or vice versa. In future, longitudinal studies could be used to help in the advancement of theoretical understanding and keep track of immigrant's movements (Caruana, Roman, Hernбndez-Sбnchez, & Solli, 2015).

Despite the limitations, the current study also had some strengths. This may have been one of the first studies to examine cultural distance and ethnic density together, finding that ED may alter the effects of CD on symptoms. Second, this study made use of a unique sample, specifically Zimbabweans living in South Africa. Most studies looking at ethnic density made use of migrants in European and North American settings, but not an African setting (Becares, Dewey, Stansfeld & Prince, 2012; Jurcik et al., 2013,2015). Next, this study was an addition to ethnic density research unpacking ED effects and helping further clarify its mechanisms and moderating role (Jurcik et al., 2013). Another strength was that the study made use of a more homogeneous group in comparison to earlier studies (e.g., Becares, Dewey, Stansfeld, & Prince, 2012; Jurcik et al., 2013).

5.3 Future research

Based on some of the unexpected findings in the current study, future research could further explore the paradoxical relationship between ethnic density and increased psychiatric symptoms in some immigrant groups. Prior to winzorization, ED was found to be positively correlated with psychosis. More research relating to high ethnic density and increased symptoms would be beneficial in understanding when ethnic density is indeed a protective factor or not and under what conditions and in different ethnic groups (Shaw, 2012). Second, further research in this topic could be valuable if improved methods are used, a qualitative design could help in understanding the role of the neighbourhood in protecting immigrants from mental health problems and further provide clarity on the mechanisms involved in ethnic density (Das-Munshi et al., 2012; Whitley et al., 2006). Third, most of the existing research focuses on ED and acculturation. Future research could further explore interactions between ethnic density and cultural distance, as was done in the current study, and extending to other populations and outcome variables. Lastly, making use of a longitudinal research design and a larger sample size could lead to clearer understanding about the direction of causality and the mechanisms of the ED effect (Caruana et al., 2015).



5.4 Conclusions

The current study aimed to further investigate the ethnic density effects and cultural distance on the adjustment of Zimbabwean immigrants living in South Africa and extend on previous work by Jurcik et al., (2013, 2015) on immigrants living in Canada. The current study made use of additional variables which included cultural distance, satisfaction with life, psychosis, discrimination and social support. Results of this study only provided partial support for the expectations and original studies. Unexpectedly, ED did not correlate with depression and psychosis, although it was associated with greater satisfaction with life and less CD. The current study found that ED strengthened the association between CD and symptoms, which was reverse of what was expected. Furthermore, exploratory analyses revealed that there was an indirect effect of CD on psychosis. The findings broadly reinforce the importance of studying CD in context (Jurcik et al., 2013, 2015, 2019). Future research may need to further explore ethnic density and cultural distance relations to clarify the policy and community-level implications.



References

Ahadi, S. A., & Puente-Dнaz, R. (2011). Acculturation, personality, and psychological adjustment. Psychological Reports, 109(3), 842-862. https://doi.org/10.2466/02.07.17.20.PR0.109.6.842-862

Ajrouch K. J., Reisine, S., Lim, S., Sohn, W., Ismail, A. (2010). Perceived everyday discrimination and psychological distress: does social support matter? Ethnicity & Health, 15(4), 417-434. doi:10.1080/13557858.2010.484050

Alegrнa, M., Mulvaney-Day, N., Woo, M., Torres, M., Gao, S., & Oddo, V. (2007). Correlates of past-year mental health service use among Latinos: Results from the national Latino and Asian American study. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 76-83. doi:10.2105/ajph.2006.087197

Anup, S. (2008, May 26). Immigration. Global issues. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/article/537/immigration

Aragona, M., Rovetta, E., Pucci, D., Spoto, J., & Villa, A. M. (2012). Somatization in a primary care service for immigrants. Ethnicity & Health, 17(5), 477-491. doi:10.1080/13557858.2012.661406

Argyle, M. (2001). The psychology of happiness. London: Routledge.

Babbie, E. (2001). The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Babiker, I. E., Cox, J. L., & Miller, P. M. (1980). The measurement of cultural distance and its relationship to medical consultations, symptomatology and examination performance of overseas students at Edinburgh University. Social Psychiatry, 15(3), 109-116. doi:10.1007/bf00578141

Barnes, L. L., Mendes De Leon, C. F., Wilson, R. S., Bienias, J. L., Bennett, D. A., Evans, D. A. (2004). Racial differences in perceived discrimination in a community population of older blacks and whites. Journal of Aging and Health, 16(3), 315-37.

Bйcares, L., Shaw, R., Nazroo, J., Stafford, M., Albor, C., Atkin, K., Pickett, K. (2012). Ethnic density effects on physical morbidity, mortality, and health behaviors: A systematic review of the literature. American Journal of Public Health, 102(12). doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.300832

Beiser, M., Puente-Duran, S., & Hou, F. (2015). Cultural distance and emotional problems among immigrant and refugee youth in Canada: Findings from the New Canadian child and youth study (NCCYS). International Journal of Intercultural Relations,49, 33-45. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.06.005

Berg, A. O., Melle, I., Rossberg, J. I., Romm, K. L., Larsson, S., Lagerberg, T. V., Hauff, E. (2011). Perceived discrimination is associated with severity of positive and depression/anxiety symptoms in immigrants with psychosis: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 11(1). doi:10.1186/1471-244x-11-77

Berry, J. W. (1997). Lead article - immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5-34. doi:10.1080/026999497378467

Berry, J. W. (2006). Stress perspectives on acculturation. The Cambridge Handbook of Acculturation Psychology, 43-57. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489891.007

Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y.H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. (2002). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications. Cambridge University Press.

Bhugra D, Jones P (2001) Migration and mental illness. Advances in psychiatric treatment. international review of psychiatry, 7, 216-223

Birman, D., & Trickett, E. J. (2001). Cultural transitions in first-generation immigrants. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(4), 456-477. doi:10.1177/0022022101032004006

Birman, D., Trickett, E., & Buchanan, R. M. (2005). A tale of two cities: Replication of a study on the acculturation and adaptation of immigrant adolescents from the former Soviet Union in a different community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 87-101. doi:10.1007/s10464-005-1891-y

Blinder, S., Allen, W. (2016). UK Public Opinion toward Immigration: Overall Attitudes and Level of Concern. University of Oxford.

Borjas, G. J. (2014). Immigration economics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Bourque, F., Ven, E. V., & Malla, A. (2010). A meta-analysis of the risk for psychotic disorders among first- and second-generation immigrants. Psychological Medicine, 41(05), 897-910. doi:10.1017/s0033291710001406

Brodziak, A., Rуїyk-Myrta, A., & Woliсska, A. (2016). Does the recent intensification of nationalistic and xenophobic attitudes in Eastern European countries adversely affect public mental health? BMC Public Health, 16, 1115. doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3785-3

Bruwer, B., Emsley, R., Kidd, M., Lochner, C., & Seedat, S. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support in youth. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49(2), 195-201.

Caldwell-Harris, C. L., & Ayзiзegi, A. (2006). When personality and culture clash: The psychological distress of allocentrics in an individualist culture and idiocentrics in a collectivist culture. Transcultural Psychiatry, 43(3), 331-361. doi:10.1177/1363461506066982

Cantor-Graae, E., & Selten, J. (2005). Schizophrenia and migration: A meta-analysis and review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(1), 12-24. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.1.12

Capra, C., Kavanagh, D. J., Hides, L., & Scott, J. G. (2015). Current CAPE-15: A measure of recent psychotic-like experiences and associated distress. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 11(5), 411-417. doi:10.1111/eip.12245

Chadwick, K. A, Collins, P. A. (2015). Examining the relationship between social support availability, urban center size, and self-perceived mental health of recent immigrants to Canada: A mixed-methods analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 128, 220-30. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.01.036

Chen, S. X., Benet-Martнnez, V., Bond, C. B. (2008). Bicultural identity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural societies: immigration-based and globalization-based acculturation. Journal of personality, 76, 803-38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008. 00505.x

Chentsova-Dutton, Y., Ryder, A., & Tsai, J.L. (2014). Understanding depression across cultural contexts. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Correll, J., Judd, C.M., Park, B. and Wittenbrink, B. (2010). 'Measuring prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination'. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Das-Munshi, J., Bйcares, L., Boydell, J. E., Dewey, M. E., Morgan, C., Stansfeld, S. A., & Prince, M. J. (2012). Ethnic density as a buffer for psychotic experiences: Findings from a national survey (EMPIRIC). British Journal of Psychiatry, 201(04), 282-290. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.102376

Das-Munshi, J., Becares, L., Dewey, M. E., Stansfeld, S.A., Prince, M. J. (2010). Understanding the effect of ethnic density on mental health: multi-level investigation of survey data from England. British medical journal, 341, c5367. doi:10.1136/bmj.c5367

Demes, K. A., & Geeraert, N. (2013). Measures matter. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(1), 91-109. doi:10.1177/0022022113487590

Denscombe, M. (1998) The good research guide. Buckingham. Open University Press.

Denton, E. D., Shaffer, J. A., Alcantara, C., Clemow, L., & Brondolo, E. (2014). Hispanic residential ethnic density and depression in post-acute coronary syndrome patients: Re-thinking the role of social support. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 61(3), 225-235. doi:10.1177/0020764014540148

Denton, E. D., Shaffer, J. A., Alcantara, C., & Cadermil, E. (2016). Neighborhood matters: the impact of Hispanic ethnic density on future depressive symptoms 1-year following an ACS event among Hispanic patients. Journal of Behavioural Medicine, 39(1), 28-40.

Detollenaere, J., Baert, S., & Willems, S. (2017). Association between cultural distance and migrant self-rated health. The European Journal of Health Economics, 19(2), 257-266. doi:10.1007/s10198-017-0881-y

Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

Documented immigrants in South Africa, 2012. Statistical release P0351.4, Retrieved from http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P03514/P035142012.pdf.

Domнnguez, J. M., & Hombrados, M. I. (2012). Social support and happiness in immigrant women in Spain. Psychological Reports, 110(3), 977-990. https://doi.org/10.2466/17.02.20.21.PR0.110.3.977-990

Duru, E., & Poyrazli, S. (2011). Competence variables in predicting acculturative stress among Turkish international students. PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e525982007-001

Factsheet: Where do South Africa's international migrants come from? (2016). Retrieved February 25, 2018, from https://africacheck.org/factsheets/geography-migration/

Feng, Z., Vlachantoni, A., Falkingham, J., & Evandrou, M. (2016). Ethnic Differentials in Health: The Additional Effect of Ethnic Density. Population, Space and Place, 23(4). doi:10.1002/psp.2030

Galchenko I, Van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2007) The role of perceived cultural distance in the acculturation of exchange students in Russia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 31(2), 181-197

Grineski, S. E., Collins, T. W., & Kim, Y. (2015). Contributions of individual acculturation and neighborhood ethnic density to variations in Hispanic children's respiratory health in a US-Mexican border metropolis. Journal of Public Health, 38(3), 441-449. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdv086

Harandi, T. F., Taghinasab, M. M., & Nayeri, T. D. (2017). The correlation of social support with mental health: A meta-analysis. Electronic Physician, 9(9), 5212-5222. doi:10.19082/5212

Hayes, A. F. (2013). An introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.

Henderson, C. (2005). Neighbourhood characteristics, individual level socioeconomic factors, and depressive symptoms in young adults: The CARDIA study. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 59(4), 322-328. doi:10.1136/jech.2003.018846

Herrero, J., & Gracia, E. (2007). Measuring perceived community support: Factorial structure, longitudinal invariance, and predictive validity of the PCSQ (perceived community support questionnaire). Journal of Community Psychology, 35(2), 197-217. doi:10.1002/jcop.20143

Hooghe, M., & Vanhoutte, B. (2011). Subjective well-being and social capital in Belgian communities. The impact of community characteristics on subjective well-being indicators in Belgium. Social Indicators Research, 100(1), 17-36.

Hovey, J. D., & King, C. A. (1996). Acculturative stress, depression, and suicidal Ideation among immigrant and second-generation Latino adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(9), 1183-1192. doi:10.1097/00004583-199609000-00016

Huang, B., Appel, H., & Ai, A. L. (2011). The effects of discrimination and acculturation to service seeking satisfaction for Latina and Asian American women: Implications for mental health professions. Social Work in Public Health, 26(1), 46-59. doi:10.1080/10911350903341077

IBM Corp. (2011). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 20.0). Armonk, NY: Author.

Idemudia, E. S., Williams, J. K., & Wyatt, G. E. (2013). Migration challenges among Zimbabwean refugees before, during and post arrival in South Africa. Journal of Injury and Violence Research, 5(1), 21-27. doi:10.5249/jivr.v5i1.185

Juan, S., Awerbuch-Friedlander, T., & Levins, R. (2016). Ethnic density and mortality: Aboriginal population health in Taiwan. Public Health Reviews, 37(1). doi:10.1186/s40985-016-0028-1

Jurado, D., Alarcуn, R. D., Martнnez-Ortega, J. M., Mendieta-Marichal, Y., Gutiйrrez-Rojas, L., & Gurpegui, M. (2017). Factors associated with psychological distress or common mental disorders in migrant populations across the world. Revista De Psiquiatrнa Y Salud Mental, 10(1), 45-58. doi:10.1016/j.rpsmen.2017.02.004

Jurcik, T., Ahmed, R., Yakobov, E., Solopieieva-Jurcikova, I., & Ryder, A. G. (2013). Understanding the role of the ethnic density effect: Issues of acculturation, discrimination and social support. Journal of Community Psychology, 41(6), 662-678. doi:10.1002/jcop.21563

Jurcik, T., Ahmed, R., Yakobov, E., Solopieieva-Jurcikova, I., & Ryder, A. G. (2014). Social ecology and the recontextualization of acculturation: Exploring the psychological role of ethnic density. New York: Nova Publishers.

Jurcik, T., Ahmed, R., Sunohara, M., Yakobov, E., Solopieieva-Jurcikova, L., & Ryder, A. G. (2015). Unravelling ethnic density effects, acculturation and adjustment: The case of Russian-speaking immigrants from the former Soviet Union. Journal of Community Psychology, 43, 628-648. doi:10.1002/jcop.21708

Kahneman, D. and Krueger, A.B. (2006). Developments in the measurement of subjective wellbeing. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22, 3-24.

Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. Y. (2002). Relation between racial discrimination, social class, and health among ethnic minority groups. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4), 624-631. doi:10.2105/ajph.92.4.624

Kateri, E., & Karademas, E. (2018). The interplay between self-construal, social support, and psychological adaptation of Indian immigrants' in Greece. The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 7(1), 148-164. doi:10.5964/ejcop.v7i1.148

Khusaifan, S. J., & Keshky, M. E. (2017). Social support as a mediator variable of the relationship between depression and life satisfaction in a sample of Saudi caregivers of patients with Alzheimers disease. International Psychogeriatrics, 29(06), 1053. doi:10.1017/s1041610216002362

Kirkevold, M., & Bergland, Е. (2007). The quality of qualitative data: Issues to consider when interviewing participants who have difficulties providing detailed accounts of their experiences. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 2(2), 68-75. doi:10.1080/17482620701259273

Kirmayer, L. J., Narasiah, L., Munoz, M., Rashid, M., Ryder, A. G., Guzder, J., Pottie, K. (2010). Common mental health problems in immigrants and refugees: General approach in primary care. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 183(12). doi:10.1503/cmaj.090292

Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: The Guilford Press.

Knies, G., Nandi, A., & Platt, L. (2016). Life satisfaction, ethnicity and neighbourhoods: Is there an effect of neighbourhood ethnic composition on life satisfaction? Social Science Research, 60, 110-124. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.01.010

Kolarcik, P., Geckova, A. M., Reijneveld, S. A., & Van Dijk, J. P. (2015). The mediating effect of discrimination, social support and hopelessness on self-rated health of Roma adolescents in Slovakia. International journal for equity in health, 14, 137. doi:10.1186/s12939-015-0270-z

Kццts-Ausmees, L., & Realo, A. (2016). Life satisfaction among ethnic minorities in Europe. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47(3), 457-478. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022116628671

Korinek, K., Entwisle, B., & Jampaklay, A. (2005). Through thick and thin: Layers of social ties and urban settlement among Thai migrants. American Sociological Review, 70(5), 779-800

Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61(7), 1576-1596. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.006

Kwag, K. H., Jang, Y., & Chiriboga, D. A. (2015). Acculturation and depressive symptoms in Hispanic older adults: Does perceived ethnic density moderate their relationship? Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 14, 1107-1111. doi:10.1007/s10903-011-9569-z

Lai, C. C., & Ma, C. M. (2016). The mediating role of social support in the relationship between psychological well-being and health-risk behaviors among Chinese university students. Health Psychology Open, 3(2), 205510291667810. doi:10.1177/2055102916678106

Lanning, K. (2011). Social psychology and contemporary immigration policy: An introduction. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 12(1), 1-4. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011. 01271.x

Lee, J. S., Koeske, G. F., and Sales, E. (2004). Social support buffering of acculturative stress: A study of mental health symptoms among Korean international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28, 399- 414.

Levin, K. A. (2006). Study design III: Cross-sectional studies. Evidence Based Dentistry, 7(1), 24-25. doi.org/10.1038/sj.ebd.6400375

Levitt, M. J., Lane, J. D., & Levitt, J. (2005). Immigration stress, social support, and adjustment in the first postmigration year: An intergenerational analysis. Research in Human Development, 2(4), 159-177. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15427617rhd0204_1

Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., Roberts, R. E., & Allen, N. B. (1997). Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) as a screening instrument for depression among community-residing older adults. Psychology and Aging, 12(2), 277-287. doi:10.1037//0882-7974.12.2.277

Liao, K., Henceroth, M., Lu, Q., & Leroy, A. (2016). Cultural Differences in Pain Experience among Four Ethnic Groups: A Qualitative Pilot Study. Journal of Behavioral Health, 5(2), 75. doi:10.5455/jbh.20160204094059

Lincoln, A. K., Lazarevic, V., White, M. T., & Ellis, B. H. (2016). The impact of acculturation style and acculturative hassles on the mental health of Somali adolescent refugees. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 18, 771-778. doi:10.1007/s10903-015-0232-y

Longhi, S. (2014). Cultural diversity and subjective well-being. IZA Journal of Migration, 3(1), 13. doi:10.1186/2193-9039-3-13

Maharajh, H. (1984). Alice in wonderland: The multi-racial small group in clinical practice. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 30(1-2), 85-88. doi:10.1177/002076408403000112

Marcus, M., Yasamy, M. T., Ommeren, M. V., Chisholm, D., & Saxena, S. (2012). Depression: A global public health concern. PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e517532013-004.

Miller, A. M., Wang, E., Szalacha, L. A., & Sorokin, O. (2009). Longitudinal changes in acculturation for immigrant women from the former Soviet Union. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(3), 400-415. doi:10.1177/0022022108330987

Morosini, P., Shane, S., & Singh, H. (1998). National cultural distance and cross-border acquisition performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1), 137-158. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490029

Mui, A. C, Burnette, D., & Chen, L. M. (2001). Cross cultural assessment of geriatric depression: A review of the CES-D and the GDS. Journal of Mental Health and Aging, 7(1), 137-164.

Neeleman, J., Wilson-Jones, C., & Wessely, S. (2001). Ethnic density and deliberate

self-harm; a small area study in south east London. Journal of Epidemiology and

Community Health, 55, 85-90. doi:10.1136/jech.55.2.85

Nicdao, E. G., Hong, S., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2008). Social support and the use of mental health services among Asian Americans: Results from the national Latino and Asian American study. Research in the Sociology of Health Care for Major Health Problems and Population Health Concerns: Impacts on Patients, Providers and Policy, 26, 167-184. doi:10.1016/s0275-4959(08)26008-4

Noh, S., & Kaspar, V. (2003). Perceived discrimination and depression: Moderating effects of coping, acculturation, and ethnic support. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 232-238. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.232

Nwoye, A. (2009). Understanding and treating African immigrant families: New questions and strategies. Psychotherapy and Politics International, 7(2), 95-107. doi:10.1002/ppi.188

O'Grady, S., & Lane, H. W. (1996). The psychic distance paradox. Journal of International

business studies, 27(2), 309-334.

Palinkas, L. A., Pickwell, S. M., Brandstein, K., Clark, T. J., Hill, L. L., Moser, R. J., & Osman, A. (2003). The journey to wellness: stages of refugee health promotion and disease prevention. Journal of Immigrant Health, 5(1), 19-28. doi:10.1023/a:1021048112073

Park, J., & Roh, S. (2013). Daily spiritual experiences, social support, and depression among elderly Korean immigrants. Aging & Mental Health, 17(1), 102-108. doi:10.1080/13607863.2012.715138

Pascoe, E. A., & Richman, L. S. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531-554. doi:10.1037/a0016059

Pehrson, S., Vignoles, V. L., & Brown, R. (2009). National identification and anti-immigrant prejudice: Individual and contextual effects of national definitions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72(1), 24-38. doi:10.1177/019027250907200104

Puyat, J. H. (2012). Is the influence of social support on mental health the same for immigrants and non-immigrants? Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health,15(3), 598-605. doi:10.1007/s10903-012-9658-7

Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale. Applied Psychological Measurement,1(3), 385-401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306

Raza, G., Singh, S., & Dutt, B. (2002). Public, science, and cultural distance. Science Communication, 23(3), 293-309. doi:10.1177/107554700202300305

Razali, N. M., & Wah, Y. B. (2011). Power comparisons of Shapiro-Wilk, Kolmogorov- Smirnov, Lilliefors and Anderson-Darling tests. Journal of Statistical Modeling and Analytics, 2, 21-33.

Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. (1936). Memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38, 149-152. doi:10.2307/2791001

Rhodes, S. D., Daniel, J., Song, E., Alonzo, J., Downs, M., & Reboussin, B. A. (2013). Social support among Immigrant Latino Men: A Validation Study. American Journal of Health Behavior, 37(5), 620-628. doi:10.5993/ajhb.37.5.5

Roux, A. V., & Mair, C. (2010). Neighborhoods and health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186(1), 125-145. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009. 05333.x

Ruggiero, K. M., Taylor, D. M. (1997). Why minority group members perceive or do not perceive the discrimination that confronts them: the role of self-esteem and perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(2), 373-89.

Salinero-Fort, M. Б, Otero-Sanz, L. D., Martнn-Madrazo, C., Burgos-Lunar, C. D., Chico-Moraleja, R. M., Rodйs-Soldevila, B., Gуmez-Campelo, P. (2011). The relationship between social support and self-reported health status in immigrants: An adjusted analysis in the Madrid Cross Sectional Study. BMC Family Practice, 12(1), 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2296-12-46

Salinero-Fort, M. Б, Otero-Sanz, L. D., Martнn-Madrazo, C., Burgos-Lunar, C. D., Chico- Demes, K. A., & Geeraert, N. (2013). Measures matter. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(1), 91-109. doi:10.1177/0022022113487590

Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2010). Acculturation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 472-481. doi:10.1177/1745691610373075

Sandhu, S., Bjerre, N. V., Dauvrin, M., Dias, S., Gaddini, A., Greacen, T., Priebe, S. (2012). Experiences with treating immigrants: A qualitative study in mental health services across 16 European countries. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(1), 105-116. doi:10.1007/s00127-012-0528-3

Schofield, P., Das-Munshi, J., Becares, L., & Agerbo, E. (2017). Neighbourhood ethnic density and incidence of psychosis - first- and second-generation migrants compared. European Psychiatry, 41, 249. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.02.034

Selmer, J. (2007). Which is easier, adjusting to a similar or to a dissimilar culture? International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 7(1), 185-201.

Settling In: OECD Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2012. doi:10.1787/9789264171534-en

Shaw, R. J., Atkin, K., Bйcares, L., Albor, C. B., Stafford, M., Kiernan, K. E., Nazroo, J. Y., Wilkinson, R. G., Pickett, K. E. (2012). Impact of ethnic density on adult mental disorders: narrative review. British Journal of Psychiatry. 201, 11-9.doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.110.083675

Spector, R. E. (2004). Cultural diversity in health and illness, 6^th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Stafford, M., Bйcares, L., & Nazroo, J. (2009). Objective and perceived ethnic density and health: findings from a UK general population survey. American Journal of Epidemiology, 170(4), 484-493. doi:10.1093/aje/kwp160

Stewart, M. (2000). Chronic conditions and caregiving in Canada: Social support strategies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Stewart, M., Anderson, J., Beiser, M., Mwakarimba, E., Neufeld, A., Simich, L., & Spitzer, D. (2008). Multicultural meanings of social support among immigrants and refugees. International Migration, 46(3), 123-159. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2435.2008. 00464.x

Suanet, I., & Fons J. R. Van De Vijver. (2009). Perceived cultural distance and acculturation among exchange students in Russia. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 19(3), 182-197. doi:10.1002/casp.989

Tadesse, B., & White, R. (2008). Cultural distance as a determinant of bilateral trade flows: Do immigrants counter the effect of cultural differences? Applied Economics Letters, 17(2), 147-152. doi:10.1080/13504850701719983

Tomita, A., Labys, C. A., & Burns, J. K. (2014). The relationship between immigration and depression in South Africa: Evidence from the first South African national income dynamics study. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 16(6), 1062-1068. doi:10.1007/s10903-014-9987-9

Trickett, E., Persky, I., & Espino, S. (2009). Acculturation research: Proxies as sources of concept obfuscation. Athens: Arapos Editions.

Tsai, J. L., Chentsova-Dutton, Y., & Wong, Y. (2002). Why and how we should study ethnic identity, acculturation, and cultural orientation. Asian American Psychology: The Science of Lives in Context, 41-65. doi:10.1037/10473-002

Tung, R. L., & Verbeke, A. (2010). Beyond Hofstede and globe: Improving the quality of cross-cultural research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(8), 1259-1274. doi:10.1057/jibs.2010.41

United Nations international migration report. (2017, December 18). International migration report. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa//international-migration-report-201

Ьstьn, T. B., Rehm, J., Chatterji, S., Saxena, S., Trotter, R., Room, R., & Bickenbach, J. (1999). Multiple-informant ranking of the disabling effects of different health conditions in 14 countries. The Lancet,354(9173), 111-115. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(98)07507-2

Vroome, T. D., & Hooghe, M. (2013). Life satisfaction among ethnic minorities in the Netherlands: Immigration experience or adverse living conditions? Journal of Happiness Studies,15(6), 1389-1406. doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9483-2

Walsh, S., Shulman, S., & Maurer, O. (2008). Immigration distress, mental health status and coping among young immigrants: A 1-year follow-up study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,32(5), 371-384. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.06.007

Warner, F. R. (2007). Social support and distress among Qeqchi refugee women in Maya Tecъn, Mexico. Medical Anthropology Quarterly,21(2), 193-217. doi:10.1525/maq.2007.21.2.193

Whitley, R., Prince, M., McKenzie, K., & Stewart, R. (2006). Exploring the ethnic density effect: A qualitative study of a London electoral ward. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 52, 376-391. doi:10.1177/0020764006067239

Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2008). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioural Medicine,32(1), 20-47. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0

World Health Organization. (2017, March 23). "Depression: Let's talk". Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/world-health-day/en/



Appendix

Self-report measures





Размещено на Allbest.ru

...