The teoretical foundations of the study experience of loneliness in adolescence

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Івано-Франківський національний технічний університет нафти і газу

The teoretical foundations of the study experience of loneliness in adolescence

Malimon Vitalii Ivanovych

Кандидат наук з державного управління, доцент

Loneliness as a social and psychological phenomenon

The problem of loneliness is the subject of research in a number of human sciences, such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, cultural studies, pedagogy, medicine, etc. Each of them considers the phenomenon of loneliness from the standpoint of its specificity, enriching it with new conceptual ideas. At the same time, it should be noted that the theoretical and practical development of certain aspects of this problem is especially relevant within the framework of social psychology, since the phenomenon of loneliness affects the problems of human relationships.

The phenomenon of loneliness is multidimensional in content, manifests itself in various forms, is experienced by people to varying degrees, and is perceived by many on a metaphorical level-all of which makes it difficult to understand scientifically.

Let's pay attention to the emergence of the concept of «loneliness». It is known that in 1674 the naturalist John Ray compiled a glossary of rarely used words. He included «loneliness» in his list, defining it as a term used to describe places and people «far from neighbors».

In John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), one of the first lonely characters in all of foreign literature appears: Satan. During his journey to the Garden of Eden to tempt Eve, Satan walks «lonely steps» from hell [14].

Later, loneliness was defined in different ways. «Inability to find meaning in one's life», «feeling negative and troubled», «subjective, negative feeling associated with a lack of social relationships», «feeling disconnected or isolated», etc. are the most common ways of defining loneliness.

The Dictionary of the Ukrainian language defines «loneliness» as «a property and a state» with the meaning of «lonely» as «an awareness of such a state». With regard to the lexical unit «solitary» (solitude, lonely), its meaning is as follows: the one who is left, lives alone, without anyone; alone» [8, p. 171].

«Modern concepts of loneliness research try to answer the following questions: «What is the nature of loneliness?», «Is it a normal state of the individual or is it a pathology?», «Does it bring positive or negative experience to a person?» [2, p. 6].

In the process of studying the experience of loneliness, philosophers, sociologists, social psychologists, and anthropologists distinguish the following interpretations: loneliness is a form of expression of emotional experience; loneliness is a complex state that takes over a person's entire being - feelings, thoughts, actions; loneliness is a form of consciousness [4].

Loneliness as a mental phenomenon correlates with the categories of feeling/emotion/affect, experience, state, process, attitude, etc.

Loneliness as a feeling means that a person experiences his or her difference from others, which leads to a certain psychological barrier in the process of communication. The feeling of rejection by the social environment is associated with the realization of the absence of close relationships based on love, friendly participation and mutual understanding.

In terms of scientific research of the phenomenon of loneliness, experience is «the ability of an individual to withstand the mental and physical stress necessary to successfully overcome a problem situation. The experience carries out affective mobilization of the resources of the individual's psyche for the sake of survival in a problematic situation and increasing the likelihood of survival in further similar situations by enriching the inner world and the sphere of activity» [1, p. 44].

Loneliness as a state is an experience of loss of an individual's inner integrity, external interconnection with the outside world, and lack of harmony between the desired and actual quality of social communications. The state of loneliness is associated with various mental manifestations, such as boredom, depression, emptiness, anxiety, and can even be pathological, accompanied by mental disorders, hallucinations, etc. In acute forms, this condition actualizes the urgent need for communication. In the absence of the possibility of satisfying it, people create imaginary partners, personify objects, animals, and mix reality and illusions. These reactions are considered compensatory and are assessed as normal. At the stage of mental disorders, depersonalizing experiences, supervaluable ideas, reactive hallucinations, etc.

«Loneliness is a multidimensional phenomenon inherent in all social systems, which has existential, social and personal determinants. The complexity of interpreting loneliness is due to the binary, contradictory (individual and social) nature of the human being, the variety of forms and manifestations of loneliness. The divergence of views lies in the fact that to date, the phenomenology, social and psychological mechanisms of loneliness have not been studied sufficiently. In the interpretation of the phenomenon of loneliness, two main trends are distinguished, due to the negative and positive orientation. This allows us to consider loneliness in an antinomic sense: destructive and creative. Loneliness correlates with the concepts of «unity» and «isolation», which have etymological identity but differ in semantics and context. The positions of voluntary or forced loneliness have a diametric social orientation and are antinomian in content. Voluntary loneliness, which has a positive orientation, correlates with the concept of «solitude» and means an individual's choice of life strategy, determined by subjective reasons of existential and cognitive nature» [44].

«Loneliness as a mental phenomenon can manifest itself in all areas of human behavior and life. Loneliness is a mental state of a person accompanied by painful emotional experiences and depressed mood. Very lonely people have few social contacts, are very unhappy, and have limited communication with other people. Loneliness is not always isolation. You can be among others, communicate with them, but still feel psychologically isolated. Symptoms of mental disorders usually accompany genuine subjective states of loneliness. They take the form of affects with a bright negative emotional coloring. Affective reactions are manifested in different ways in all people. Some people complain of feeling fear, anxiety, others complain of sadness, others talk about bitterness, anger» [28].

The modern idea of loneliness is linked to the cultural and economic transformations that have taken place in the modern west. industrialization, the growth of the consumer economy, the diminishing influence of religion, and the popularity of evolutionary biology have all emphasized the importance of the individual, rather than traditional paternalistic notions of a society in which each individual has a place.

Let us pay attention to two definitions of loneliness contained in widely cited psychological research:

Loneliness is «an unpleasant experience that occurs when there is a subjective discrepancy between the desired and perceived availability and quality of social interactions» [27].

Loneliness is «an unpleasant feeling that accompanies the perception that a person's social needs are not met by the number or, especially, the quality of his or her social ties» [23].

Variants of these two definitions are popular in the scientific and popular science literature on loneliness (take, for example, the definition of loneliness in the Encyclopedia Britannica as «the suffering that occurs when a person's social ties are perceived to be less in quantity, and especially in quality, than desired») [24].

Loneliness is not a simple experience. Just like a diamond, loneliness has many facets, aspects, nuances, and manifests itself in many different ways. From this perspective, loneliness is a deeply humane experience [41].

The main types of loneliness, considered on the basis of the four-dimensional model, are presented by American psychologists W. Sadler and T. Johnson in their work «From loneliness to anomie» [37]: space, cultural, social and interpersonal. In their opinion, all types of loneliness have something in common: it is «a form of selfawareness that indicates a break in the main network of relationships and connections that make up the life world of a person». Stress in the main areas of a person's inner world causes loneliness, and changes in the criteria and degree of frustration determine the type of loneliness.

Cosmic loneliness, the most complex, actualizes three forms of self-perception: 1) comprehension of oneself as a holistic reality and correlation with nature and the cosmos; 2) involvement in mystical, mysterious aspects of life that are extremely close to God or to the beginnings of existence; 3) a person's belief in the specificity of his or her destiny or involvement in a great historical mission. The third form of manifestation of cosmic loneliness is observed in people who are dissatisfied with the consciousness of their own uniqueness and greatness of their destiny.

Cultural loneliness is the experience of a break in people's connection with their own cultural heritage, traditional norms and values - the basis of a person's ideas about themselves the basis of a person's ideas about themselves, the world around them, and their place in it. This type of loneliness is caused by migration, sociocultural changes, conceptual transformation of value orientations, intellectual and moral development of the individual, which leads to difficulties in communicating with once close people.

Social loneliness is manifested in the relationship between an individual and a separate group, and is expressed in such forms of social isolation as exile, ostracism, rejection, and resignation. A person feels like an outsider, lonely, redundant, and unable to assume an appropriate social role. The growth of social loneliness is explained by a number of contributing factors: the division of society into classes and growing socialization, mobility of social boundaries, short-term existence of groups, discrepancy between the level of social expectations and the real situation associated with neglect, humiliation of a person's social role, intellectual and professional qualities. Concerns about one's social position and anxiety about one's social identity encourage people to actively engage in communication and social activities.

Interpersonal loneliness is related to social loneliness and is caused by a person's experience of the lack of recognition of his or her uniqueness and spiritual connection with a specific person who is significant to him or her [37].

T. Brennan [17] identifies such types of loneliness as general loneliness, emotional loneliness associated with the weakening, disintegration or threat of losing a relationship with someone close; social loneliness associated with the inaccessibility or loss of social ties in society for one reason or another; awareness of the discrepancy between real ties and existing internal standards that are formed in relationships with someone close; spiritual loneliness associated with the search for one's own identity and meaning in life.

R. Weiss [42] was the first author to distinguish between social and emotional loneliness. Emotional loneliness refers to the perception of the absence of close relationships, while social loneliness refers to the perception of the absence of an accessible (in terms of quantity) and acceptable (in terms of quality) social network. Social loneliness is often related to social variables such as having close ties to friends, companionship, and network size, while emotional loneliness is often related to a lack of emotional support.

Loneliness can also be divided into three types according to its causes:

Situational loneliness: the socio-economic and cultural environment contributes to the emergence of situational loneliness. Various environmental factors, such as unpleasant experiences, mismatch between the level of a person's needs and his or her social contacts, population migration, interpersonal conflicts, accidents, disasters, void syndrome, etc. lead to loneliness.

Developmental loneliness: each of us has an innate desire for intimacy or a need to be connected to others. This need is essential for our development as human beings. In addition to this need, there is also a higher level of need for individualism, which is related to the knowledge and development of the self, which also requires a certain amount of loneliness. For optimal development, there must be a balance between these two needs. When a person is unable to balance these needs properly, it leads to a loss of meaning in their life, which in turn leads to emptiness and loneliness in their life.

Internal loneliness: Loneliness in itself does not make a person lonely. It is the perception of loneliness that makes a person lonely. People with low self-esteem and less self-respect feel lonelier than their peers. The causes of this type of loneliness include personality factors, locus of control, mental distress, low self-esteem, and feelings of guilt or uselessness.

Taking into account the variety of definitions, classifications of types, forms, and forms of loneliness available in science, we consider loneliness as a social and psychological phenomenon, in the aggregate of sensualistic, empirical, and metaphysical components.

In our opinion, the phenomenon of loneliness is a characteristic part of human existence. However, the psychological path to self-knowledge is quite cruel - a person finds himself or herself alone. You have to go all the way, meet your own shadow, the darkest corners of your own soul, overcome a hopeless feeling of loneliness and

many other challenges, gaining life experience, trying to achieve harmony with yourself and realize the realities of the outside world.

The study of loneliness as a psychological phenomenon allows us to find out the root causes of loneliness and use the achievements of various psychological theories to help and reduce the negative manifestations of loneliness.

Main methodological approaches to the interpretation of the concept of «socio-psychological loneliness»

Analyzing scientific works and studies on the problem of loneliness, we come to the conclusion that psychological science does not have a common understanding of the essence of the phenomenon of «loneliness», the causes of its appearance, positive and negative manifestations, etc. In particular, scientists D. Perlman and L. A. Peplau [34] systematized existing views on the phenomenon of loneliness and identified 9 approaches to the interpretation of loneliness: psychoanalytic, phenomenological, existential, sociological, interactionist, cognitive, intimate, systemic, interdisciplinary.

We distinguish 8 main approaches to the interpretation of the concept of «socio-psychological loneliness»:

Neo-Freudian model (psychodynamic) (G. Zilburg, F. Fromm-Reichmann, H. Sullivan).

Sociological model (C. Bowman, D. Riesman, Ph. Slater).

Cognitive model (L. Peplau, W. Sadler).

Interactionist model (R. Weiss).

Humanistic model (A. Maslow).

Phenomenological model (C. Rogers).

Existential model (C. Moustakas, B. Mijuskovic, V. Frankl).

Meta-anthropological model (philosopher and psychoanalyst N. Khamitov).

Let us consider their main provisions and conceptual ideas.

The psychodynamic model defines the state of loneliness through the prism of an individual's personal characteristics. Scientists focus on the factors that lead to loneliness. These include such factors as character traits, internal conflicts and experiences, peculiarities of perception, etc. Representatives of this approach almost never consider situational factors.

In 1938, G. Zilburg [46] published his first analysis of the phenomenon of loneliness. The scientist draws a clear line between loneliness and solitude. Zilburg considers solitude to be a normal state of an individual, a transient mindset. He argues that solitude occurs when an individual feels the need to communicate with a particular person. Loneliness, on the other hand, is chronic and is an overwhelming feeling.

Harry S. Sullivan [39], in turn, traces the dynamics of the development of a person's need for intimacy. At an early age, this need is manifested in the desire for close contact with parents, especially with the mother. Then the child feels the need to interact closely with peers, whom he or she perceives as partners in games. In adolescence, there is a desire to have a friend of the same sex to share secret experiences. Perception, memory, thinking, imagination, and all other mental processes, in his opinion, are social. Although Sullivan rejects the individual as non-existent, he nevertheless recognizes that he is the center of various processes that take place in a series of interpersonal interactions. Harry S. Sullivan found that the success of interaction with peers directly depends on the nature of relationships with close relatives and parents. If an adolescent is unable to satisfy the need for intimacy, this can lead to chronic loneliness, both at this particular age and in the rest of his or her life. The most important of these are dynamism, personalization, and cognitive processes. The scientist believes that loneliness is associated with human complexes, with the fear of losing personal relationships that are formed at certain stages of an individual's personal development. Harry S. Sullivan notes that the phenomenon of loneliness manifests itself in the most severe form in adolescence [39].

Frieda Fromm-Reichmann [21] wrote her essay «Loneliness» in 1959. She was one of the first to consider loneliness as a debilitating illness that needs to be understood. Fromm-Reichmann conducted clinical research on mental illness, and comments on the fact that little is known about this topic. Many people, including psychologists, deliberately avoid this topic because it is such a painful experience that they prefer not to discuss it.

It is believed that the terror associated with loneliness is based on the fact that people often define themselves in terms of their open relationships with others. The sense of self-worth depends on how others perceive a person, what others say to them, and how they compare themselves to their peers. Fromm-Reichman believes that «loneliness seems to be such a painful, frightening phenomenon that people will do almost anything to avoid it. This avoidance seems to include the strange reluctance of psychiatrists to seek a scientific explanation of this issue. Thus, it appears that loneliness is one of the least satisfactorily conceptualized psychological phenomena, not even mentioned in most psychiatry textbooks» [21]. The author argues that loneliness completely demoralizes an individual, leading to mental deviation. In her opinion, the early separation of a child from his or her mother plays a major role in the formation of a sense of loneliness.

Loneliness can also be seen as a complex phenomenon that can be defined in terms of a bio-psycho-social model. Some people may be biologically predisposed to experience loneliness, which is likely due to inherited personality traits, while others may experience loneliness related to other psychological causes, such as grief or depression. From a social perspective, a person may experience loneliness as a result of social isolation. The advantage of this explanation of loneliness is that the factors that cause loneliness are clearly defined, which helps to choose the best therapeutic interventions.

The sociological approach views the phenomenon of loneliness as a normative state of an individual; loneliness is a statistical indicator that characterizes society as a whole. The sociological approach is polar to the psychodynamic one. The most popular concept of the loneliness phenomenon within the sociological approach was developed by D. Riesman [35]. Analyzing social behavior, D. Riesman and his follower Philip E. Slater [38] link the phenomenon of loneliness to the study of the social character of an individual. Scientists identify three types of social character: traditionally oriented, externally oriented, and internally oriented. The first type is conservative, tradition-oriented, and inherent in pre-industrial society. The second type belongs to the period of development of early industrial society with weakened traditions. A personality belonging to this type has a strong character and a tendency to innovate and change. The third type appears in the context of the transition to a consumer society. The behavior of a personality of this type is conditioned by the influence of bureaucracy, fashion, media, etc. The individual is standardized and impersonalized. Of course, the need for love, honesty and decency remains, but the surrounding reality blocks possible manifestations.

К. Bowman [ 16] sees the phenomenon of loneliness as a consequence of social changes taking place in society. The scientist points out the very painful nature of experiencing this phenomenon, but considers it a natural and even obligatory attribute of being. According to his theory, any major social change leads to breaks in interpersonal ties and gives rise to the phenomenon of loneliness. Bowman believes that loneliness is a product of social forces. The author emphasizes the following points:

Weakening of ties in the primary group. The primary group includes the family institution. On the example of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, one can observe how family ties are sharply weakening from generation to generation.

Increased family mobility. Here, the problem can be viewed from the physical and psychological sides. On the physical side, there is an urbanization of society - massive growth of cities, and thus migration of the population. On the psychological side, for example, the number of divorces, second and third marriages is increasing. In addition, there has been a mixing of gender family functions.

Increased social mobility. The increase in social mobility can be seen especially clearly in the case of modern Ukraine.

Taken together, these three factors lead to the instability of interpersonal relationships, and the phenomenon of loneliness is a consequence of social changes taking place in society. Philip E. Slater [38] believes that individualism gives rise to the phenomenon of loneliness. In modern society, where the basis of everything is the principle of «every man for himself», the need for communication is unsatisfied. Loneliness is the result of this dissatisfaction.

Representatives of the cognitive approach assume that an individual feels lonely if he or she is aware of the discrepancy between the desired and actual level of involvement in social interaction.

«Loneliness is a complex feeling that takes over a person's entire personality - their feelings, thoughts, and actions. We believe that consciousness plays an important role in this feeling. We don't think that loneliness exists «only in your head» and that it can be overcome as if by magic by «positive thinking». But we argue that a comprehensive analysis of loneliness is impossible without examining the impact that cognitive processes have on it, among other things» [34].

Letitia Ann Peplau emphasizes the theory of attribution. An individual who develops a clear attribution of himself as a lonely person experiences the feeling of loneliness with even greater force. In other words, the awareness and focus on one's own loneliness become factors in the realization of this phenomenon in life.

Letitia Ann Peplau identifies three main aspects of self-diagnosis of loneliness: affective, behavioral, and cognitive.

The author notes that affective signs are sometimes blurred. This is because there is no specific set of emotions associated with the phenomenon of loneliness. The behavioral aspect also cannot serve as a sufficient basis for detecting loneliness; a number of behavioral characteristics must be used to identify this condition. The cognitive aspect can be the basis for self-diagnosis of loneliness, as it is derived from the idea of a certain type of social relationships that are not present at the moment. Cognitivists believe that a person can comprehend loneliness through his or her feelings, actions, and thoughts. Followers of this theory are convinced that it is impossible to identify loneliness through one single characteristic, even if it is the dominant one.

W. Sadler [37] offers an interesting interpretation of the phenomenon of loneliness. He identifies one phenomenon that underlies all experiences. The scientist calls this phenomenon the personal world. The personal world has four main areas: the uniqueness of human destiny, traditions and culture of the individual, social environment, and perception of others. According to this phenomenon, there are four types of loneliness:

existential, cultural, social, and interpersonal. The feeling of loneliness becomes especially overwhelming if it is a complex of these four types.

The cognitive approach to the phenomenon of loneliness emphasizes the importance of self-knowledge. According to this approach, an individual who has decided that he or she is lonely comes to the point where this state of loneliness begins to take on real features.

From the interactionist point of view, loneliness appears as a result of a lack of social interaction. There are situational and personal aspects of loneliness. The phenomenon of loneliness can be triggered by a specific situation or by a person's subjective tendency to loneliness. The combination of both aspects affects the quality of an individual's interactions with others and leads to either an emotional experience of loneliness or a sense of social isolation.

The main representative of the interactionist approach is R. Weiss [42]. The scientist considers the phenomenon of loneliness as a combined effect of personal and situational factors.

R. Weiss's theory is based on his work with a group of women who joined a support group for single mothers called Parents Without Partners. He found that these women were less lonely overall than before they joined the support group, but they were still lonely because they lacked a romantic partner. Thus, he suggested that people with particular relationship problems can experience very different types of loneliness, which can be divided into two distinct groups: emotional and social loneliness. Social loneliness is the negative feelings associated with an unsatisfactory association with a preferred group; emotional loneliness is the negative feelings associated with an unsatisfactory association with an intimate relationship.

Robert Weiss has identified six social needs, the unmet needs of which contribute to feelings of loneliness. These are the needs for attachment, social integration, caring, affirmation of self-worth, a sense of secure alliance, and orientation in stressful situations. As predicted by attachment theory, Weiss argued that friendship complements, but does not replace, a close, intimate relationship with a partner in preventing loneliness.

Social loneliness is expressed in a rapidly developing sense of one's own marginality. R. Weiss divides loneliness into acute and chronic, believing that it is necessary to study the differences between them.

A prominent representative of the humanistic approach is the American psychologist Abraham Maslow [29]. The scientist concludes that an individual prone to self-actualization is characterized by a need for loneliness. He describes this need in detail and defines it as necessary for an individual seeking self-improvement. It is logical to assume that this type of loneliness is positive. A. Maslow argues that true self-knowledge is impossible without loneliness.

It is necessary to distinguish between positive and negative loneliness. Some people want to be understood and try to work on themselves to make their desire come true, while others drive themselves to despair, worried that no one understands them, but do not want to change anything in their own behavior. The scientist defines the first category of people as individuals who strive for self-actualization. These people try to make themselves relevant to the world around them. This process continues throughout life. Hence, we can conclude that a person needs a state of loneliness throughout his or her life. A. Maslow [29] considers the phenomenon of loneliness as a necessary stage in the life of a self-realized and successful person.

According to the phenomenological approach, each individual has the ability to perceive and interpret the surrounding reality in his or her own way. In philosophy, a phenomenon is a mental experience of the environment, and the study of an individual's experience of reality is called phenomenology. Proponents of this approach believe that the personal perception of reality in each case determines the behavior of the individual. The individual is capable of self-control, and behavior is determined by the ability to make choices. The actions and deeds of each person are individual, because the perception of the world is unique. For example, if one perceives the world as a friendly environment, one is likely to feel happy, and if one perceives the world as hostile, one is likely to feel anxious.

The phenomenological approach does not consider instincts and processes that are common to humans and animals. Within this approach, the main task is to consider the following specific mental qualities that distinguish humans from the animal world: self-awareness, creative thinking, the ability to make plans for the future, to make decisions, and to be aware of one's responsibility. In addition, the phenomenological approach considers the view that every individual has an innate need to realize their potential - personal growth - but the environment can block this need. People are naturally inclined to be creative, friendly, kind, loving, and joyful.

The phenomenological approach assumes that it is impossible to understand another person or their behavior unless one tries to look at the situation through the prism of their consciousness. Thus, we can conclude that any human behavior is filled with meaning [28].

The main representative of the phenomenological approach is Carl Rogers [36]. The scientist was convinced that a less formal approach to patients is more effective. He began to use non-directive therapy, allowing patients to decide for themselves what to talk about and when. C. Rogers did not direct patients, did not evaluate their actions. C. Rogers' treatment was based on three positions: unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence. His analysis is based on the theory of the «I», which believes that society encourages an individual to act in accordance with certain social rules, limiting freedom of action. This leads to a contradiction between the individual's inner true self and the manifestation of the self in relationships with other people. He emphasized the feeling of emptiness and loneliness in life when the true self does not manifest itself and a person lives in accordance with his or her social image, showing only his or her facade. He viewed loneliness as alienation from oneself. A person feels lonely when, having removed the protective barriers to himself, he thinks that he will be denied contact with others.

Representatives of the phenomenological approach believe that loneliness is caused by a gap between the accepted general norms of communication and real relationships. The individual strives for a model of communication that is considered ideal in society, which often does not coincide with the individual's individual characteristics. As a result, the individual comes to a sense of loneliness, realizing that he or she does not fit in with his or her environment. Sometimes an individual comes to loneliness through the desire to create new social ideals through the prism of creativity, or is completely alienated from society, being misunderstood by it.

Representatives of the existential approach study an individual through his or her ability to be alone. This ability saves the existential essence of a person from disappearing in society. Representatives of this approach argue that a person who is in a crowd turns into nothing. At any age, a person actively confronts others, defending the right to his or her own opinion, the right to his or her uniqueness. Representatives of this approach interpret the ability of an individual to experience loneliness as a necessary condition for his or her development.

Existentialists believe that all people are originally and always alone.

A prominent representative of this approach is C. Moustakas [32]. His concept is based on the opposition between false loneliness and true loneliness. The scientist says that a person is constantly faced with a choice, making responsible decisions every day, often feeling afraid of making the wrong decision. This can lead to a person seeking to establish new contacts with others, trying to distract themselves by running away from the main issues. True loneliness is almost always generated by the experience of facing borderline existential situations. These include death, birth, life tragedy, etc. A person receives only an external form of support, and it is necessary to comprehend and experience such situations on their own. Such experiences bring an individual, strangely enough, into contact with himself or herself, and give him or her the opportunity to know himself or herself.

C. Moustakas views the fear of loneliness as a manifestation of defense mechanisms. He argues that «people who experience fear fail in solving their own life tasks. They either exhaust themselves with superficial relationships with others or engage in fruitless and unconstructive spiritual searches» [33, p. 11].

The author emphasizes the importance of the difference between «vanity of loneliness» and «true loneliness». The vanity of loneliness as a defense system does not allow a person to solve important life issues, constantly encourages him or her to socialize and communicate with other people. True loneliness arises from the concrete reality of lonely existence and a person's encounter with boundary life circumstances (birth, death, life changes, tragedies), which he or she copes with on his or her own, determines the positive aspect of experiencing loneliness, which makes it possible to look at the situation from a new perspective, change values, find the meaning of one's own life, make adequate decisions about one's own behavior, and get to know another self.

Existential loneliness is an inherent and organic reality of human life, which includes both pain and triumphant creation arising from long periods of devastation. In existential loneliness, a person is fully aware of himself as an isolated and lonely individual, while in the loneliness of anxiety, a person is separated from himself as a feeling and cognizing person [32].

Another prominent representative of this area is Ben Mijuskovic [31]. The scientist is trying to identify a universal principle to understand the reasons for human actions. B. Mijuskovic argues that loneliness is inherent in humans. He believes that after satisfying physiological and biological needs, a person seeks to alleviate his or her loneliness. While studying the phenomenon of loneliness, the scientist approached the problem of death and argues that people are less afraid of it than of loneliness. For example, children are not afraid of death, they do not know and do not understand it, but they are afraid of being alone. Children are afraid of loneliness, which suggests that they know or assume what it is.

V. Frankl [22] emphasized the need to distinguish between the concepts of «being alone» and «feeling alone». He understood the feeling of loneliness as the experience of fear of being truly alone. To be truly alone is conditioned by the very factor of human existence, by the fact that we are given to stand in existential situations, such as birth, death, and doom. The author believes that loneliness should not be viewed only from a negative point of view, because it can itself be a source of a creative attitude to life.

I. Yalom [43] wrote that the boundaries between types of isolation are semi-permeable and that one type can lead to another. For example, if someone begins to feel that they have fewer social connections than they would like (i.e., they feel lonely), this may begin to manifest itself in feelings that others do not see the world the same way as they do. Likewise, if a person is in a situation where they have few social contacts and are socially isolated, over time they may begin to feel that their view of the world is not shared by others.

The existentialist understanding of loneliness also distinguishes between different types of loneliness, the main one being existential loneliness, which is part of the human condition.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that representatives of the existentialist approach pay special attention to the fact that human nature involves alienation and loneliness as properties that are inherent in humans from the beginning. It is necessary to overcome the fear of loneliness and learn to use it positively.

The famous Ukrainian philosopher and psychoanalyst N. Khamitov developed a meta-anthropological approach to understanding the phenomenon of loneliness.

According to the postulates of the meta-anthropology methodology, loneliness should be considered at the everyday, boundary, and meta-boundary levels.

The everyday life of a person «outlines the dimension of human existence, within which the generic and civilizational existence of a person is reproduced» [27, p. 27]. Everyday life of a person is the result of the will to self-preservation and the will to procreation, so in its space the spiritual rather than the spiritual dimensions of human existence are actualized.

Everyday life is associated with the reproduction of the generic and civilizational existence of man. Perceiving it as intrinsic value inhibits the actualization of the uniquely personal beginning associated with the intrinsic intentionality of man and other teleological factors of his life organization. N. Khamitov considers everyday life as «submission to the other and others, uncertainty of one's own path and unwillingness to choose» [11, p. 253].

That is why in everyday life, sooner or later, all feelings and actions are covered by boredom. Human life is perceived as something alienated from Being-as-Eternity, as something short-lived, closed and finite, something that must fade away without a trace under the pressure of the ruthless element of time. The experience of life as closed and finite reveals a masochistic desire to free oneself from the boredom of everyday life, an infinite fear of the infinite everyday. Hence the self-evident assumption that in everyday life loneliness manifests itself primarily as boredom [12, p. 230].

Boredom is the result of loneliness in everyday life and at the same time its fundamental cause. Boredom is the result of loneliness because it is generated by unrealized communication with other people and with oneself. Boredom is the cause of loneliness because it is the existential basis on which loneliness-unrealization grows. The circle closes. In order to break it, it is necessary to go beyond everyday life into fundamentally different, truly existential dimensions.

These existential dimensions are possible only as dimensions of freedom. After all, boredom is generated by the impossibility of freedom in everyday life.

Boredom leads to loneliness because it is the closure of human existence. In it, human existence closes itself off from the world, losing its saturation. The loss of saturation is the loss of the possibility of personal choice due to the loss of the desire for personal choice [12, p. 233].

Liminal being or being-on-the-border can be defined as going beyond the limits of everyday life with its harmony into disharmonious states, where one understands oneself as something unique and lonely in relation to the world. In this existential dimension of human existence, inner loneliness ceases to be a «thing-in-itself» and becomes a fundamental feature of existence.

Inner loneliness in the ultimate being of a person is exposed and becomes a realized reality. One cannot hide from this loneliness; it can only be overcome. It can be overcome by self-change, by self-transcendence [12, p. 58].

In contrast to the everyday, the liminal being of a person outlines the dimension of human existence, «where a person actualizes personal characteristics, becoming simultaneously open to the world and lonely in relation to it» [13, p. 29].

Meta-borderline being describes the dimension of human existence, where there is «going beyond the boundaries of everyday life with its impersonal completeness and borderline being with its incompleteness and conscious existential separation» [13, p. 67].

«As a result, the metamorphosis of the will to inspire occurs in the metaboundary being of a person, and creativity goes beyond objectification and becomes actualization - the creation of oneself and the space of productive communication» [13, p. 67].

In general, loneliness has many aspects: there is a feeling of emptiness or abandonment associated with a lack of relationships or intimacy; there is a time perspective (loneliness comes over time) through which a person perceives his or her own loneliness; there is a set of emotional aspects that accompany loneliness, including sadness, melancholy, disappointment, shame, or despair; and finally, there is a subjective assessment by an individual of the quality and quantity of his or her social connections.

Thus, loneliness can be viewed as a social and psychological phenomenon that unfolds on three levels of existence: the everyday, the liminal, and the metaboundary [6].

These methodological approaches broaden the understanding of the essential characteristics of the concept of «socio-psychological loneliness» and allow us to formulate a scientific basis for understanding the phenomenon of loneliness.

Peculiarities of experiencing loneliness in adolescence

In age psychology, adolescence is considered one of the most important and crucial stages in the development of a personality. It is this period that marks the transition from adolescence (childhood) to independent adulthood. Youth is an active, creative and responsible period associated with maturation, socialization, acquisition of psychological traits, social norms and values, knowledge, skills and abilities for functioning and development of personal characteristics in society. It should be noted that in psychological science there are different approaches to determining the age limits of adolescence, which is due to the specific methodological approaches that researchers use in the process of age periodization. In particular, the age period from 14 to 17 years in some scientific sources is referred to as adolescence, in others - as youth.

The upper boundary of adolescence is even more ambiguous: it is mediated by historical and social conditioning and individual variability. Most often, researchers distinguish between early adolescence (15 to 18 years) and adulthood itself (18 to 25 years) [3].

In the psychosocial theory of E. Erikson's psychosocial theory, the main issue to be resolved by a person during the period of youth is entering society, assuming appropriate social roles, compliance with social requirements, etc. If the tasks are successfully solved, the personality forms a new formation, which E. Erikson [19] defined as Ego-identity. According to the scientist, adolescence is a sensitive stage for the formation of a young person's identity, which is carried out through existing social and individual choices, identification and selfdetermination. The first romantic and sexual relationships may occur in adolescence, but most people do not seriously look for a life partner until early adulthood. The first job may appear in adolescence, but it is only in adulthood that people begin to seriously look for a job that suits them.

Erikson, in fact, predicted this change in his idea of psychosocial moratorium, «during which a young person, through free role experimentation, can find a niche in a certain part of his or her society» [19, p. 156].

Another observation to be made about Erikson's ideas about youth is that young people are extremely focused on developing intimate relationships, to the neglect or exclusion of the rest of life.

«A young person who is not sure of his identity shies away from interpersonal intimacy; but the more confident he becomes, the more he seeks it in the form of friendship, struggle, leadership, love, and inspiration» [20].

Adolescence is one of the most responsible, controversial and difficult stages of life. The main task of age- related development during this period is the formation of a person as a subject of his or her own development, which involves:

personal and professional self-determination,

socialization and integration into the world of adults, expansion of social roles and assimilation of new norms of relationships with a higher degree of independence and responsibility than in childhood.

T. Svatenkova [10] believes that personality development during this period is a unique experience of discovering one's own inner world, deep reflection, active processes of self-identification and self-realization, existential experiences, and the formation of a life position and time perspective. There is a formation and awareness of the system of values, finding the meaning of one's own existence.

T. Lukianenko [5] considers the phenomenon of ambivalence to be a defining feature of adolescence, which manifests itself in the coexistence of equal in strength but mutually exclusive in content opposite tendencies in motivation, cognition, emotions and behavior. The main areas of manifestation of young men's ambivalence are affiliation motivation (desire for acceptance and fear of rejection), frustration intolerance (emotional instability, lack of response to the influence of frustrating values and frustrating objects), aggressiveness or benevolence in behavior (spontaneity of aggression, inability to restrain it, pleasure or guilt from causing harm). The author calls the integration of the individual into the team an effective way of psychocorrection of ambivalence.

The leading activity in the period of adolescence is vocational training, which lays the foundation for future employment and professional self-realization. The leading activity leads to the emergence of the motive for selfimprovement and the need for achievement, which is manifested in the individual's desire to adequately assess their own capabilities, independently regulate their behavior, improve academic performance, expand their worldview, and be self-effective in their activities and communication. Early adolescence is characterized by the predominance of intrinsic motivation over extrinsic motivation; the development of intrinsic motivation enables a young person to consciously manage their needs and aspirations, to master the inner world [12].

The implementation of vocational training is closely related to a new social role and social status - student. This is the period of entering a new social space, which involves active interaction with the faculty and university administration, with teachers of various subjects, with classmates, fellow students and other students. New living conditions, on the one hand, lead to the experience of spiritual uplift, joy, interest, and on the other hand, create difficulties and barriers that cause a state of confusion and dissatisfaction [9, p. 5].

Admission to a higher education institution and further successful studies require a high level of internal motivation and self-regulation, self-organization, independence, initiative, perseverance, responsibility, and an adequate assessment of one's own abilities. Students purposefully and systematically master a large amount of knowledge and skills, professional, social and general competencies. They learn to set achievable goals, organize their own time, develop self-control and the desire for self-improvement [12].

As you know, the cultural and social environment of modern society has changed quite a bit in recent years - there has been a reassessment of values; the most relevant is the development of competitiveness in young people, not of comprehensive development; the approach and attitude to education as a set of of learning and upbringing processes.

A comparative analysis of the value orientations of young people showed that such instrumental values that were significant in the past, such as «intransigence to one's own and shortcomings» and even «high expectations» are the least important for today's youth. And «cheerfulness», which stands out as the most important value now, was insignificant in the past. Thus, young people of previous years valued demanding attitudes more highly valued towards both themselves and other people, while for today's youth, regardless of their social background, value of a light, optimistic attitude to life, which can be explained by for a variety of reasons. Perhaps this is a consequence of the propaganda of this particular lifestyle in the media. Sociologists, cultural critics, philosophers have noted the change of the so-called culture of effort to a culture of relaxation. At the same time, it can be assumed that in today's fast-changing society, such an easy attitude to life is productive and allows you to quickly to change and adapt to the rather complex conditions of the modern world [7, p. 62].