Modern landscape planning

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Exam questions of Study and Mapping of Geosystems

1. Describe the study of geosystem structure, development and functioning

2. Defining of landscape

3. Defining of basic terms of geosystems

4. Overview of the role and need for integrated landscape science

5. Describe the landscape morphology

6. Overview of modern landscape planning

7. Describe the landscape boundaries

8. Describe the landscape classification system

9. Overview of current methods of landscape classification

10. Describe the cultural landscapes

11. Defining of anthropogenic landscapes

12. Overview of models of landscape structure

13. Describe the subtropical landscapes

14. Defining of equatorial landscapes

15. Overview of classification of locality (мекен)

16. Defining of facies (фация) as a territorial unit of the landscape

17. Overview of components of the landscape

18. Describe the polar and sub-polar landscapes

19. Overview of the stages of mapping of the geosystems

20. Overview of the modern technology for mapping of geosystems

21. Overview of landscape dynamic concepts

22. A new approach for landscape mapping

23. Overview of landscape resources at the national level

24. Overview of landscape as territory

25. Describe the landscape construction: factors in relation to systems, structures and materials

26. Describe the GIS Software Module for mapping of landscape

27. Landscape models and explanation in landscape ecology

28. Overview of landscape, time and process

29. Defining of landscape genetics

30. Describe the landscape design of small recreational or civic spaces

31. Describe the application of GIS in regional landscape planning

32. Describe the significance of landscape planning for the environmental assessment of other plans and programmes

33. Describe the application of Remote sensing in regional landscape planning

34. Defining of purpose of landscape classification

35. Overview of sustainability of geosystems to technogenic influences

36. Defining of landscape planning contents

37. Overview of landscape planning levels and modules

38. Describe the landscape metrics: conceptual foundation

39. Defining of landscape and geosystems in the local level

40. Defining of map projection and its classification

41. Defining of map scale and its classification

42. Describe a quick tour of map layers

43. Describe about displaying layers

44. Describe the stages of adding layers to a map

45. Overview of steps involved in mapping and vectorization

46. Describe ArcGIS as application program of mapping of geosystems

47. Overview of store, analyse and input of data

48. Describe the stages of creation database and attribute table

49. Describe the ArcMap

50. Describe the ArcCatalog

51. Describe the traditional method of mapping of landscape

52. Overview of analysis and modeling of data in a GIS

53. Describe the essential labeling concepts in ArcMap

54. Overview of importance of cartographic methods in the study of geosystems

55. Describe the methods of geocoding

56. Overview of information sources of creating a landscape map

57. Describe the stages of design a landscape map

58. Overview of splitting a polygon in ArcMap

59. Overview of creating and editing annotation in ArcMap

60. Defining of tables and attribute information in ArcMap

geosystem landscape mapping



1. Describe the study of geosystem structure, development and functioning

Geographical system (geosystem) - a fundamental category of Geography and Geoecology, denoting a set of interrelated components geographic shell combined flows of matter, energy and information. In general, this concept is very close to the concept of an ecosystem or biogeocoenose . The concept of "geosystem" in Soviet science academician Sochava introduced . Since virtually all geographic science degree or another concerned with the interaction of components of the environment, there are so many concepts that are close to the notion of geosystems. The geosystem -- rather complete territorial education which is forming in close interrelation and interaction of the nature, the population and the economy, which integrity is defined by the direct, return and transformed connections developing between subsystems of geosystem. Each system possesses a certain structure which is formed of elements, the relations between them and their communications with environment. The element -- is the main unit of system which is carrying out a certain function. Depending on scale ("permission level"), the element at a certain level represents indivisible unit. At increase in level of permission the initial element loses the autonomy and becomes a source of elements of new system (subsystem). Such approach is most important in the geography operating with territorial systems of different scales. The structure of geosystem includes a subsystem of natural objects (geological bodies, the soil, vegetable covers, water sources), making a natural basis of geosystem (surrounding natural, including the geological environment) and a subsystem of artificial objects (land and underground constructions, reservoirs, etc.). Usually geosystems represent difficult educations in which hierarchy the following components differ on the importance. In a subsystem of artificial objects mark out set of the objects defining purpose of geosystem (for example, in geosystem on mining -- mine and all mine economy); set of auxiliary objects (ores providing enrichment, energy leading, transportation of raw materials, materials); set of objects of cultural and community appointment, etc. In turn, in each of these sets separate objects (for example, a separate excavation, etc.) can be allocated . In a subsystem of surrounding environment allocate natural and territorial complexes, natural boundaries, within the last -- separate natural objects (geological bodies, the soil, vegetation, water objects, etc.). Backbone properties of geosystem are shown in the course of interaction of subsystems and can be destroying, exciting, regulating and operating. The last allow to optimize geosystem functioning. Studying of structure, regularities of functioning and development of geosystem is carried out for the purpose of the forecast of a state of environment under operating conditions geosystems and when developing actions for conservation, the geosystem design, which main objective -- definition of optimum structure, properties, dynamics and operating conditions of subsystems. Design includes research of a state of environment and separate natural objects and processes (geological, hydrogeological and engineering-geological, geocryologic, biological, etc.) ; research of an orientation and intensity of interactions of artificial objects with surrounding environment and interactions between subsystems forming it; research and the forecast of changes of the processes arising in environment at interaction with artificial objects of geosystem. Researches of geosystems -- complex, contain social and economic, ecological, technological and other aspects, include statement of regime supervision, mathematical calculation of interaction of subsystems and modeling.

2.Defining of landscape

Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land, including the physical elements of landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect the living synthesis of people and place vital to local and national identity. Landscapes, their character and quality, help define the self-image of a region, its sense of place that differentiates it from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. Landscape may be further reviewed under the following specific categories: landscape art, cultural landscape, landscape ecology, landscape planning, landscape assessment and landscape design. The activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land is named Landscaping. Throughout the 19th century. The term "landscape" in geography refers mainly to the external appearance of the territory or to the topography (eg "erosional landscape", "hilly terrain"). The first scientific definition of L. belong Russian geographers of the early 20th century., Especially Berg (1913), who saw in him a harmonious combination of natural components (topography, climate, soil, vegetation) delineated by natural boundaries, and treated it as a "geographical individual" and the main object of geographical research. In foreign geographical literature, the term "Landscape "was particularly widespread in the 20-30s., and used in different ways, mainly in respect of all the characteristic external features of the earth's surface, including the various manifestations of human activity (cultivated fields, villages, roads, etc.) . Only a few, mostly German, geographers (S. Passarge, K. Troll later) sought to determine the landscape as a natural unity. In modern Soviet geography of landscape is understood as a natural system . Development of the doctrine of the landscape , mainly in terms of the development of ideas Berg , led to the formulation of the representation ( often called regional) of L. as the main stage of the system of geographical systems and integral territorial unit with strictly limited scope and content . According to this view , developed in the 30- 40s . 20 . L. Ramenskoye, A. Grigoriev , SV Kalesnik and further detailed sound NA Solntsev , VB Sochava etc. , LG has a specific territory , homogeneous in origin and history of having a single geological foundation , the same type of terrain, the general climate, uniform combination of moisture and temperature , soil biocenosis and logical set of morphological parts - and facies tracts. Some geographers ( AG Isachenko etc.) noted as a significant criterion of L. homogeneity and indivisibility of both the zonal and the zonal aspects. Each L. , in turn, is part of a complex taxonomic units physiographic zoning - physiographic zones , countries , regions and provinces. L. Examples of this understanding - Izhora Hills (Leningrad region) ,Balti steppe ( Moldova), Verhneteberdinsky landscape (Greater Caucasus ) . Some researchers ( DL Armand , JK Efremov , FN Mielke ) treat L. city as a concept, not limited taxonomic scope , ie, as a synonym for natural territorial complex (See natural territorial complexes ) . In this sense , the L. can be called and the steppe zone and East European ( Russian ) Plain and mire . Individual geographers ( NAGvozdetskii etc.) the concept of " L. of " investing typological content , ie one landscape include multiple sites , which can be geographically separated, but have similarity in its essential features of nature ( steppe landscape , marsh landscape ) . L. can be distinguished not only on land but also in the oceans , but the study of underwater landscapes is still in its infancy .

3.Defining of basic terms of geosystems

Definition of some concepts and terms is formulated by the Commission on unification of landscape terminology at Presidium of the geographical society USSR (the Commission, will be called further 1963). Among natural systems in Wednesday surrounding the person the special role is played by geographical systems or geosystems -- this concept was entered by A. G. Isachenko. The term "geosystem" more others, corresponds to level of ideas of that object to which we carry it (The commission, 1963). What is the geosystem? The geosystem -- is natural and geographical unities of all possible categories, from planetary geosystem (a geographical envelope or the geographical environment as a whole) to elementary geosystem (physiographic facies) (Sogava, 1978). Geosystems -- material expressions of integrity of a geographical envelope and its separate sites. Qualitatively peculiar laws of change and development -- private manifestations of a special geographical form of movement of a matter (Pants, 1961) are peculiar to them. Geosystems are very multi-scale, therefore quite naturally their division on dimension: to length, area, volume, weight, time. In the theory of dimension generalization in very extensive classes is allowed. In relation to geosystems it has the features, to be exact needs the mathematical apparatus and the corresponding physical criteria. We approach to it empirically and we distinguish three ranks of geosystems: · planetary geosystem (geographical envelope) -- the highest natural unity; · the main geosystem (landscape) representing the most fractional division of a geographical envelope which rather fully characterizes local features of structure of the geographical environment; · elementary geosystems (physiographic facies), representing short-lived, quickly being transformed complexes in which an environment is almost uniform (Sogava, 1986). Facies -- the most fractional and, as, the rule, the least durable division of the geographical environment (elementary geosystem) which is crossed by one essential natural boundary (The commission, 1963). Landscape -- the main geosystem, in the physiographic area (country), representing a site of a terrestrial surface on which the difficult system of fatsias specific to it forming territorial combinations (урогища, group урогищ), dynamic and any faktoralny ranks comes to light. (The commission, 1963) In a landscape as in focus, regional and typological indicators of the nature are combined. As the main taksologichesky unit of the geographical environment a landscape equally is category of systematization of geosystems and territory divisions into districts. The narrowness of communications between components of geosystem can be put on the first place among logical criteria of the doctrine about geosystems as characterizes very important feature structure of these systems. At violation of norm of narrowness (admissible rigidity of determination) geosystem as that inevitably breaks up. This circumstance makes a deep sense as on the one hand, defines possibility of long existence of geosystem as whole and, with another -- doesn't constrain some deviations of modes, its components. Landscape components (and any geosystem) are composing it "natural-historical bodies" -- qualitatively special types of a matter (climate, a morphological complex with a geological basis inherent in it, waters, the soil, vegetation and other). They are characterized everyone by the form of movement of a matter -- in relation to a geographical form of movement (the geographical environment marking development), less difficult, quite often the lowest or collateral. (Commission, 1963). Each component of geosystem is presented by divisions of various rank, created in the course of historical development of this component at interaction with others, quite often developing at other speed. Each component of geosystem can have the age. Evolution of geosystems as certain structures went on the way of development of "freedom of communication" between components. Where there were conditions of rigid determination, the geosystem wasn't stabilized. Along with limited determination in geosystems various degree of causality between processes making it and the phenomena works. N. Winer paid attention as that communications within the organization in one cases play more important role, in others minor. Thus, according to N. Winer, it is necessary to consider that causality is something, able to be present to a greater or lesser extent, and not just to be or not to be. All this together taken never allows to lose sight that geosystems are dialectic whole with diverse communications and contradictions.

4.Overview of the role and need for integrated landscape science

Need for Integrated Landscape Science The COAG Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council clearly recognises the need for an integrated approach to addressing strategic NRM concerns, and using science to inform NRM decision-making. Despite the very clear goals of the State NRM Plan for landscape scale management, integrated management and communities … managing natural resources in an integrated way, there is evidence that there is limited scientific capacity for this to be researched and developed let alone being integrated and implemented as part of progressive NRM management. An independent review identified a gap in the number of South Australian researchers with expertise in integrated modelling of NRM. There has been significant scientific research in Australia and internationally devoted to better understanding of integration science in conjunction with landscape processes. This has been driven by the wholesale recognition and acceptance that managing landscapes in an integrated and systematic way is a critical, though difficult, requirement of planning to halt and reverse the decline in natural resources. It is important that there is integration of the physical environment, the community and the economy. This is a new and challenging research and innovation area at the interface of the development and application of complex systems science.INTEGRATED LANDSCAPE SCIENCE The earliest definition of a landscape is attributed to von Humboldt13 who described it as Landscape is the total character of a region of the country. Antrop14 identifies that The concept of „landscape? has multiple meaning and is intrinsically holistic. He explores the development of integrated landscape science by recognising three groups: natural sciences; human sciences, and; applied sciences. Tress et al.15 add to the definition by stating By integration we mean that different knowledge cultures are bridged and their knowledge fused together when answering a research question. The landscape is the combination of the terrestrial resources sustaining life. These include the regolith, the soils, the biota, the water, the near ground atmosphere and the people. The term landscape has geographical significance. Landscapes are commonly appreciated on a scale or extent of kilometres in much the same way as watersheds and catchments. Integrated landscape science is the application of systematic analysis based on quantitative information that brings together the understanding of environmental, ecological, economic and social perspectives to generate new knowledge. This is a new and challenging area of research and application which is yet to be fully appreciated as indicated by the recent finding from Tress et al13 in Europe - Recent surveys of integrative landscape research projects and their funding bodies have revealed a lack of common understanding of integrative research concepts…On a practical level, a potent application of integrated landscape science is in planning for cost-effective natural resource management. Initially, this requires the modelling and integration of quantitative spatial information concerning multiple environmental, ecological, economic, and social processes to characterise the complex biophysical and human interactions in the landscape.

5.Describe the landscape morphology

The morphological structure of a landscape reflects its planned, territorial organization. Unlike vertical structure the planned structure of a landscape is set by character of a relief, a mosaic of friable deposits, their mineralogical and mechanical structure, proximity of ground waters to a surface of the earth and local features of climate. According to the offer of chair of a landscape planning of geographical faculty of the Moscow State University of M. V. Lomonosov natural geosystems larger, than a landscape, i.e. consisting of several landscapes, call taxonomical units, and smaller, being a part of a landscape - morphological parts of a landscape. The section of a landscape planning paying attention to studying of regularities of internal territorial structure of a landscape, representing its morphological components, call landscape morphology.Morphological structure of landscapes variously on complexity of the internal territorial device. At the present stage of development of geography a landscape consider as the difficult individual territorial unit, historically developed system of smaller natural complexes designated by terms: facies, subnatural boundary, natural boundary and district. Facies. It is the simplest limit category of the geosystem hierarchy, being characterized the greatest uniformity of an environment. Facies, by G. S. Makunina's (1987) definition, it "… functionally complete, elementary geocomplex created on identical breed of one element of a relief, in identical conditions of insolation and moistening and covered during each separate period of the existence by a certain vegetable community on an identical difference of the soil". Apparently from definition, within facies in all its territory the identical lithology of the superficial breeds, an identical relief and the moistening, one microclimate, one soil difference and one biocenosis remain. Subnatural boundaryOne element of a mesoform of a relief, similarity of the microclimatic conditions, identical power of deposits in soil-forming thickness. Natural boundaryOnemesoform of a relief. District It is combined with a certain complex of positive and negative mesoforms of a relief in borders of one type of a landscape. landscape view- has a homogeneous and coeval geological and geomorphological foundation (usually within the boundaries of the local geological structure), one type of terrain and the same climate.

6. Overview of modern landscape planning

Landscape planning - itFirst, the set of methodological tools and procedures used to construct such a spatial organization of the society in a particular landscape, which would ensure sustainable development and preservation of the basic features of this landscape as a life-support system. Secondly, landscape planning is a communicative process that involves all the subjects of economic and environmental activities in the planning, local communities and non-governmental organizations, and which provides identifying the interests of nature, wildlife issues, conflict resolution and the development of a coherent plan of action and activities.The result is a series of landscape planning maps and other graphic materials and explanatory text to them. Thus, in both landscape planning connected meaning of the concept plan - this intention, and drawing, in other words, the intention, clothed in chart form. Spatial planning has three main hierarchical levels, different scales and partly content planning - program landscape, landscape framework plan and landscape plan. Landscape planning tasks :* preservation of the basic functions of the landscape as a life-support system* identifying the interests of nature and analysis of emerging conflicts* develop an action plan and activities required to resolve conflicts and achieve agreed objectives* promote the sustainable development of the territory .The objectives of the landscape planning include finding answers to the following key questions:* that this is a valuable landscape in need of protection ?* that is suitable for development ?* What are the existing and potential impacts on the landscape ?* What happens if the planned intentions materialize users?To answer these questions during the planning necessary to determine :* functions of a particular landscape and its resource potential,* its sensitivity , the buffer capacity , the limits of stability , and the like;* existing and planned load indicating their sources (eg , the nature and level of water pollution and its trends)* environmental risk ( potential consequences ) of existing and planned land use forms and types of economic activity ,* contradiction between the needs of landscape conservation and use .Landscaping plan should also identify :* the value of land in the territory of planning in the broadest sense , including their strategic position ,* The ratio between the needs of users, resources mastering specific landscape and long-term interests of society,* range of requirements for project development of this landscape.The tasks of spatial planning also includes the formation of :* effective coordination mechanism for combining local residents and users , various departments and decision-makers at different levels,* proposals for the industry ( land management , water management , and others) and common spatial development (primarily - in urban development plans )* Democratic decision-making system and prerequisites for socio- economic stabilization of the local community .Important tasks of spatial planning are also:* allocation of territories with different needs and modes of protection,* Creation of a network of such areas ,* selection of areas suitable for different uses ,* definition of the desired state components of the landscape and the whole territory planning, ensuring a high quality of life - both environmental and aesthetic positions with

7. Describe the landscape boundaries

According to LS Berg border natural landscapes ,ie they are objective , there is in the very nature and should not be performed subjectively . In practice landshaftovedy faced with the fact that in reality we have to deal with different types of transitions between different landscapes, which are determined by changes in not one, but a variety of factors . Landscape differentiation related and due to zonal and azonal factors , these same factors determine the spatial boundaries of the landscape. Zonal and sectoral differences are its primary expression in climate zonal solid foundation , so changing these components primarily determines the border. Specific reasons are changing landscapes : · Gradual zonal or sectoral climate change · Sudden changes in altitude , · Change of slope exposure , · Morphostructures change and associated change of indigenous or Quaternary deposits. In determining the boundaries of landscapes should not be forgotten that all components have boundaries , changing in time , and in different components of the degree of variability is different. All this leads to the fact that the boundaries of the landscape are not linear but have a certain width , i.e. are band whose width varies . The most clear are the boundaries associated with azonal factors ( outputs of the different petrographic composition of rocks , ledges relief , etc.) , the zonal boundaries are more blurred. Except lateral borders, landscape as three-dimensional body has vertical boundaries in the lithosphere and the troposphere.Relative to the vertical boundaries exist theoretical assumption according to which, the higher the rank Geosystems, the more its vertical thickness. The boundaries of the landscape in the atmosphere conventionally performed where the impact of the landscape disappears on atmospheric processes. But these limits at any moment change to the same atmospheric properties depend not only on the underlying surface, but also from external causes. Lower limits of the landscape determines the depth to which the observed direct interaction components of the landscape and observe the process of transformation of solar: energy, water cycle, weathering, geochemical activity of active organisms, seasonal rhythm processes



8. Describe the landscape classification system

In landscape geography used two main classification models :1- is a hierarchical taxonomy of natural geosystems in accordance with their space-time scales - from facies to the landscape and on up to the landscape envelope . Its logical basis is the relation of part and whole .2 - typological , in which each natural geosystem individual and at the same time an element of some typological amount. Dialectical understanding of the relationship individually special and general , typological - the basis of this classification.Typological classification of objects appear different taxonomic rank Geosystems - facies tracts, areas, landscapes, but it should be remembered that for each taxon landscape must exist independent classification. A classification suitable for facies and stows, and landscapes can not be created. Too different they are structurally and genetically. Classification of landscapes - a logical operation to streamline and grouping a plurality of individual landscapes in classes, types , genera and species , according to strictly conditioned manner that reflects their essential properties . Systematics landscapes - the result of their classification. Typological system subordinate unified , real-world landscapes of the region. Consequently, if the classification - the scientific approach , the program typological actions, systematics - the result of their application to individual landscapes particular locality . Systematics plays the role of a scientific model of landscape in the Territory . At present the most fully developed structural-genetic and geochemical classification. The authors first Armand Gvozdetskii, AGIsachenkoMielke, Nikolaev et al Authors second - wormwood, Perelman Glazovskaya. There are attempts to geophysical, geo-environmental, aesthetic and other landscape classifications. Structural-genetic classification defines a way of their typological group on the basis of the analysis of history (evolution), genesis and structure of geosystems. The history and genesis of a landscape cause features of their structure. In turn the structure of a landscape represents the evolutionary chronicle of geosystem which can be read in spatial and temporary aspect. The structural analysis provides a substantial basis of classification, its substantive basis in which the landscape with all its structural elements and their systems, nevertheless, represents a certain integrity

9. Overview of current methods of landscape classification

Landscape classification is driven by a need for practical solutions for the management of landscape change. The NZ Landscape Classification provides a macro, generalised description of landscape character that is intended for use alongside manual detailed landscape assessments that capture greater complexity. Although an inventory of natural and unnatural landscapes can be generated, the classification does not provide information on aesthetic quality. The NZ Landscape Classification was created using GIS technology and national spatial databases, which has generated a nationally consistent classification. This classification can be used to provide information on landscapes at a range of spatial scales (national, regional, and local) and at a range of generalisationlevels.The classification of landscapes is complicated by the fact that it involves both human perception and physical reality, while many of the science classifications tend to be based on just the physical. This makes landscape classification particularly difficult because human perception generates a wide range of meanings. Jones (1991) describes this complexity as the "elusive reality of landscape" (p. 229). He adds that in the past, the lack of recognition that landscapes are a physical reality and a social or cultural construct has led to an "academic battlefield" with different disciplines and schools concentrating exclusively on either the physical landscapes or on the observer.The NZ Landscape Classification provides information on character rather than quality and is therefore a value neutral description of landscapes. However, particular landscape character types are known to be valued by the public and there is a branch of landscape research known as “content category research” that links landscape character to quality. Natural landscapes are valued in NZ and this is substantiated by psychophysical research on landscape value (Environment Waikato, 2003; Fairweather and Swaffield, 1999). The large and increasing number of people visiting National Parks and walking through the hills and mountains is also testimony to the value people place on natural landscapes. Therefore, a naturalness score can be used to substantiate landscape value The natural character of landscapes is commonly described as the absence of obvious signs of human modification (Fairweather and Swaffield, 1999). Based on this principle, each class in level III of the NZ Landscape Classification was scored from 1 (Natural) to 5 (Unnatural) based on the naturalness of the components that constitute the class. The components that influenced whether a class was unnatural were landcover, dominant landcover and infrastructure. All landform and water components were assumed to be natural. This naturalness score can be used for quickly identifying natural landscapes.

10. Describe the cultural landscapes

The term "cultural landscape" covers a set of manifestations of interaction of the person with surrounding habitat. Cultural landscapes reflect specific technologies of the steady land use connected with character and opportunities of environment in which they are, and a peculiar spiritual bond with the nature in many cases. Preservation of cultural landscapes can promote development of modern methods of land use, and also keep or strengthen natural advantages of a landscape. Proceeding application of traditional ways of land use maintains biological diversity in many regions of the world. Thus, traditional cultural landscapes promote biodiversity preservation. Cultural landscapes differ on three main categories:1 . Most accurately designated landscape consciously conceived and executed by the person is clearly distinguishable. Here the garden and park landscapes created for the esthetic purposes which in many (but not in all) cases are connected with monumental constructions and ensembles of religious or other character enter.2. Integrally developing landscapes belong to the second category. They arose as result of initial requirement of social, economic, administrative and/or religious character and reached the present form in communication and under the influence of the natural environment. This process of evolution is reflected in a form and details of landscapes. They are subdivided into two subcategories of landscapes:? relict landscapes in which the evolutionary process has stopped, ending, at once or gradually, some time ago, at the same time, however, in its physical form is still distinguishable its essential distinguishing features; ? evolving landscape that has retained its active social role in that part of the modern community with strong ties to the traditional way of life, and in which the evolutionary process continues, while at the same time it demonstrates the significant material evidence of its evolution over time; 3. The third category is the associative cultural landscape, the inclusion of such landscapes in the World Heritage List due to the presence of very strong religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural landscape, and not evidence of material culture, which can be represented only slightly, if at all. Physical boundaries within the cultural landscape nominated for inclusion in the list of cultural heritage depends on its functionality and legibility. Selected sample must in each case quite convincingly represent cultural landscape that it illustrates, in its entirety. Should not be excluded and extended linear extension of areas of culturally significant transport and communication facilities.

11. Defining of anthropogenic landscapes

Anthropogenic Landscapes, or "Human Landscapes" are areas of Earth's terrestrial surface where direct human alteration of ecological patterns and processes is significant, ongoing, and directed toward servicing the needs of human populations for food, shelter and other resources and services including recreation and aesthetic needs.

Anthropogenic landscape - natural landscape transformed by man , more specifically , at least unconsciously. With deep change or significant withdrawal of landscape integrity of one or two of its components, a chain reaction of changes. For example, open pit mining lowers the groundwater level, implies shoaling waters, withering vegetation. Clear cutting of forests over large areas also causes shallowing of rivers , reducing oxygen in the air , and the like . In primitive society primitive means of production could not change the natural landscape so that he could not recover naturally. Beginning with the XX century.technical means of changing landscapes and people's needs have grown so much that the removal of any part of the landscape has not kept pace with compensated natural regeneration . Practically on Earth remains at least slightly undisturbed natural landscapes . By the degree of anthropogenic landscape changes differ : weakly altered - hunting grounds in the taiga ; modified - selective cutting of forests , fields of small settlements and the like. To include an extremely altered urban settlements ,plowing and practical destruction of natural steppe landscapes , large development of mineral minerals ( Donbass ) and others. For the protection of natural landscapes created reserves, sanctuaries , measures of protection against air and water pollution . Anthropogenic landscapes are also improved human landscapes in the form of parks, sanitary clearing of forests, plantations , and others.

Anthropogenic landscapes, far from being counterposed to natural landscapes, are treated as a distinctive genetic group of landscapes that owe their origin to human interference, but follow natural laws of development. Anthropogenic landscape science is said to be concerned with the physical-geographic and ecological aspects of human impact on the environment, while the study of types of land use focuses on the technology and economic benefit of such impact.

12. Overview of models of landscape structure

landscape structure integrally reflects the geological history of the territory , the current climate , the sequence shifts vegetation and soil cover in the space business activities . Quantitative analysis of information obtained from space remote sensing and digital terrain model , allows a deeper understanding of the rules of its hierarchical organization . Physical map , compiled on the basis of quantitative analysis can be regarded as a form of display of these rules. Mapping with known accuracy existing spatial patterns in changing states of the physical properties of the structural units of the territorial organization , it becomes an important tool for understanding nature and business planning . Small-scale cartographic mapping of landscape structure , carried out without direct field research provides a basis for understanding the nature and assess the capacity utilization of its resources and can be regarded as a necessary component of regional physiographic studies.

Models of landscape change may serve a variety of purposes, from exploring the interaction of natural processes to evaluating proposed management treatments. These models can be categorized as either whole landscape models, distributional landscape models, for spatial landscape models, depending on the amount of detail included in the models. Distributional models, while widely used, exclude spatial detail important for most landscape ecological research. Spatial models require substantial data, now more readily available, via remote sensing, and more easily manipulated, in geographical information systems.

Biological diversity in all its dimensions and facets is always tied to habitats, which need a concrete areal section of the earth's surface for their existence. Biological diversity is therefore always defined for a certain reference area, and landscape structure is a key element for the understanding of species diversity. Spatial heterogeneity, as an expression of landscape structure, indicates the variability of the system's properties in spatial terms . Therefore it is regarded as essential for the explanation of the occurrence and distribution of species from the local to the global level. Against this background, an increasing number of studies analyse the relationship between landscape structure and biodiversity.

It is often mentioned in very general terms that the spatial pattern of the landscape influences many ecologically relevant processes, e.g., the distribution of materials and nutrients or the persistence and movement of organisms.



13. Describe the subtropical landscapes

The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropic circle of latitude (the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) and the 35th parallel in each hemisphere. Subtropical climate regimes can exist at high elevations within the tropics, such as across the Mexican Plateau and in Vietnam and Taiwan. Six climate classifications utilize the term to help define the various temperature and precipitation regimes for the planet Earth. Eight months of the year within the subtropics have an average temperature at or above 10 °C (50.0 °F), with their coldest month averaging between 2 and 13 °C (35.6 and 55.4 °F).

A great portion of the world's deserts are located within the subtropics, due to the development of the subtropical ridge. Within savanna regimes in the subtropics, a wet season is seen annually during the summer, which is when most of the yearly rainfall falls. Within Mediterranean climate regime, the wet season occurs during the winter. Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to locally heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones, which can contribute a significant percentage of the annual rainfall. Plants such as date palms, citrus, mango, litchi, and avocado are grown within the subtropics. Tree ferns and sequoia also grow within subtropical climate regimes.

14.Defining of equatorial landscapes

Landscapes equatorial forests occupy large areas in equatorial Africa (pool r.Kongo ) , South and Southeast Asia (Indo - Malayan region, including the Malay Peninsula , Sunda , Philippine Islands to New Guinea inclusive) and South America ( Amazon basin ) .

Humid equatorial forests develop in humid hothouse climate , which is characterized by constant copious moisture and even temperature background .

Solar radiation is somewhat lower because of the thick cloud cover , but high radiation balance . The overwhelming majority of radiative heat expended on evaporation, the share of the turbulent heat flux into the atmosphere is 6-14 %.

Characterized by the so-called zenith rain usually falling in the afternoon, when the most intense convection air currents . They have the character and heavy rains accompanied by thunderstorms . Precipitation maxima are confined to the time when the sun is at its zenith over the equator ,ie the spring and fall. Main maximum rainfall usually occurs in September -October , the second - in April and May . Minima observed in July (top) and February. For this scheme imposed rainfall associated with the summer monsoon and trade winds . Considerable diversity in the precipitation regime have also made local orographic features

15. Overview of classification of locality (мекен)

Classification of landscapes involves their selection for specific attributes or parameters of landscape

1) Hierarchical classification :

- The global level ( the entire planet Earth is represented as a unique geosystem - epigeosfera )

- The regional level ( the land is divided into landscaped areas , countries , regions, provinces, districts and the actual landscapes)

- local level ( the land is divided into areas , Tracts, podurochischa and facies) .

2) facies - most small unit of the landscape.

Topographic - classification ( considering different taxonomic Geosystems : facies podurochischa , Tracts, countryside, landscapes)

- Structural and genetic classification

Location - any part of the earth surface with all its irregularities and objects ( objects) located on it .

From this definition, it appears that the area consists of two elements : the actual earth's surface with all its irregularities - surveyors call it relief , and all that is in it , call local items . The latter can be very different. Natural origin (rivers , lakes, forests , bushes , swamps , etc.) and man-made , that is created by human hands , his work ( railways, settlements , industrial, agricultural and cultural facilities , etc.) .

The main element is the terrain topography . He has the greatest impact on water supplies , and in particular land cover , and on the road, and on location, plan settlements , and even the climate.

Relief, depending on the natural conditions of the area may be the most diverse forms . But if you look carefully to all the earth's surface irregularities , it is still possible to observe the so-called basic (typical ) landforms : mountain, ridge , hollow, hollow and saddle. They are found in pure form , or in combination with each other and , in turn , have their own species. For example, instead of the mountains you can often see her kind - a hill or mound , instead of dells - beam, ravine , valley , gorge.

16. Defining of facies (фация) as a territorial unit of the landscape

Facies-an elementary morphological unit of a geographic landscape; a structural component of an isolated topographic feature. A landscape facies usually coincides with one mesorelief element--for example, the top of a hill or the upper part of a hill's northern slope--or with an individual microrelief form. It is characterized by a homogeneous bedrock, microclimate, water regimen, and soil cover and is located within a single biocenosis. The diverse types of landscape facies result from natural differences and from deforestation, plowing, land reclamation, and other forms of human activity.

Key characteristics

Uniformity of the parent rock , climate , water regime , soil .

Location within a biocenosis.

Diverse variants of landscape facies are caused by natural differences and different forms of human activity ( deforestation , plowing , land reclamation , etc.)

Facies types :

Marine ;

Continental ;

Transitional ( lagoon , delta ) .

Coastal marine facies ( intertidal area ) .

Lithological characteristics: pebbles , gravel, coarse sand , gravelite conglomerate , sandstone . Color breeds: reddish-brown . Multidirectional layered texture .

Paleontological features : no animals , the possible presence of limestone . As an exception may be the mangroves .

Geochemical characteristics: iron hydroxides .

17. Overview of components of the landscape

components of the landscape

geographic components , the basic components of landscape representation of the individual areas of the geographic shell : the lithosphere (rocks , soils) , hydrosphere (surface and groundwater) , atmosphere ( chemical composition ) and the incidence of biota (microorganisms , plants and animals ) . The components of the landscape also include objects of human activities (construction , agricultural fields , etc.).

The terrain consists of components, each of which is a " representative " individual private Geospheres belonging to the geographic shell. In the system of organization of the Earth geographical components occupy an intermediate position between simple discrete bodies ( minerals, rocks , gases and gas mixtures , individual organisms ) and geosystems . With respect to geosystems they are structural parts of the first order, parts of their vertical ( radialtier ) structure , since it is inherent in the ordered tier location within geosystems .

The main part of modern landscapes of the Earth consists of a combination of abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components in a sense, act as primary in relation to biota. This is not only because they arose early in the evolution of the Earth , but also due to the fact that they constitute the primary material substrate Geosystems , by which organisms create living matter , moreover, it is theoretically possible to imagine Geosystems , constructed only from abiotic components ( glacial ) . Without life and soil such landscapes can be seen as incompletely or as protolandshafty . However, after the emergence of life as the highest form of matter organization geographic shell composition and structure of all abiotic spheres has undergone a significant transformation , living matter has become an important factor of landscape , biological cycle has led to a radical transformation of the atmosphere , hydrosphere and lithosphere . According to VI Vernadsky oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide , the main components of that part of the atmosphere, which is included in the geographic shell are of biogenic origin . The entire thickness of sedimentary rocks formed with the participation of organisms , they also play a crucial role in the formation of gas and ion composition of natural waters , soils form .

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