Modern landscape planning

45. Overview of steps involved in mapping and vectorization

Automatic Vectorization of the Contour Lines

This step aims to transfer the contour lines from their raster representation to a vector which is more compact and useful. Index lines are given no special treatment, as in many topographic maps it is common practice to label contours, regardless of their weight or specific elevation value. The outcome of this step are spaghetti vectors that define segments of the contour lines.

Vector data comes in the form of points and lines that are geometrically and mathematically associated. The points are stored using their coordinates, and the lines are stored as a series of point pairs.In general, vector data structures produce smaller file sizes than raster images because only point coordinates are stored. Raster images, meanwhile, require space for every pixel.

This is true in cases when graphics or images have large regions, boundaries, and shapes that are the primary interest. Additionally, vector data is often considered to be more agile in a computerized environment, as it contains fewer data items and scales easily. These and other favorable attributes make the vector data structure essential to most mapping, GIS (geographic information system), and CAD (computer aided design) software packages, which might export data to vector formats such as shape files, DXF, DWG, SVC, and ASV.

46. Describe ArcGIS as application program of mapping of geosystems

Traditionally, a gap has existed between surveyors and geographic information system (GIS) technicians. These two groups have typically maintained their data, measurements, and calculations in separate systems and attempts to interface those systems have often caused degradation in the spatial quality of the GIS data. As a result, the potential synergies of having surveyors and GIS technicians work together have been missed. What is needed is an integrated means of bridging this gap on two fronts by (1) enabling survey data, and its inherent information about spatial quality, to be the basis of defining mapping accuracy for the GIS and (2) allowing survey measurements and computations to be maintained in a GIS database so improvements in spatial quality for survey data can be propagated into the GIS. These needs are now met with ArcGIS® Survey Analyst.

Using ESRI® ArcGIS Survey Analyst, surveyors can easily incorporate their measurements and calculations into GIS databases that serve all departments and applications in an agency. Surveyorsand GIS technicians can at last work in a truly collaborative and unified environment.

47. Overview of store, analyse and input of data

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social science domains.

Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on modeling and knowledge discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes. Business intelligence covers data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing on business information. In statistical applications, some people divide data analysis into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data and CDA on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on application of statistical or structural models for predictive forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. All are varieties of data analysis.

Data integration is a precursor to data analysis, and data analysis is closely linked to data visualization and data dissemination. The term data analysis is sometimes used as a synonym for data modeling.

The construction of the input data to a Safety Analysis must be subject of an adequate Quality Assurance programme. All sources of data must be referenced and documented. The whole process must be recorded and archived to allow independent checking Both conservative and BE analysis need to know the probability distribution of the uncertain variables and parameters. But the knowledge must be finer for the BE approach, coarser for the conservative one.

48. Describe the stages of creation database and attribute table

In relational databases and flat file databases, a table is an organized set of data elements (values) using a model of vertical columns (which are identified by their name) and horizontal rows, the cell being the unit where a row and column intersect.[1] A table has a specified number of columns, but can have any number of rows[2]. Each row is identified by the values appearing in a particular column subset which has been identified as a unique key index.

Table is another term for relation; although there is the difference in that a table is usually a multiset (bag) of rows whereas a relation is a set and does not allow duplicates. Besides the actual data rows, tables generally have associated with them some metadata, such as constraints on the table or on the values within particular columns.[dubious - discuss]|

The data in a table does not have to be physically stored in the database. Views are also relational tables, but their data are calculated at query time. Another example are nicknames[clarify], which represent a pointer to a table in another database.

49. Describethe ArcMap

ArcMap is the main component of Esri's ArcGIS suite of geospatial processing programs, and is used primarily to view, edit, create, and analyze geospatial data. ArcMap allows the user to explore data within a data set, symbolize features accordingly, and create maps.

Functionality

ArcMap users can create and manipulate data sets to include a variety of information. For example, the maps produced in ArcMap generally include features such as north arrows, scale bars, titles, legends, etc. The software package includes a style-set of these features.

The ArcGIS suite is available at three license levels: Basic, Standard, or Advanced (formerly ArcView, ArcEditor, or ArcInfo). Each step up in the license provides the user with more extensions that allow a variety of querying to be performed on a data set. ArcInfo is the highest level of licensing, and allows the user to use such extensions as 3D Analyst, Spatial Analyst, and the Geostatistical Analyst.

Maps created and saved within ArcMap will create a file on the hard drive with an .mxd extension. Once an .mxd file is opened in ArcMap, the user can display a variety of information, as long as it exists within the data set. At this time the user will create an entirely new map output and use the customization and design features to create a unique product. Upon completion of the map, ArcMap has the ability to save, print, and export files to PDF.

The geographic information that is loaded into ArcMap can be viewed in two ways: data view and layout view.

In data view, the user can interact with the geographic information presented, and the map elements are hidden from view. Most projects begin in this view, and continue to the layout view for final editing and production. While in the layout view, the user can incorporate a number of useful features such as scale bars and legends. These elements are crucial to map-making, and provide clients with appropriate reference information.

50. Describe the ArcCatalog

'''Arc Catalog'''

ArcCatalog is a geodatabase administration application in ESRI's ArcGIS suite. It provides an integrated and unified view of all the data files, databases, and ArcGIS documents, integrating information that exists in many forms, including relational databases, files, ArcGIS documents, and remote GIS web services.

Specifically, ArcCatalog allows an ArcGIS user to:

Browse and find geographic information

Record, view, and manage metadata

Define, export, and import geodatabase data models and datasets

Search for and discover GIS data on local networks and the Web

Create and manage the schemas of geodatabases

Administer ArcSDE geodatabases

AdministeranArcGISserver

51. Describe the traditional method of mapping of landscape Landscape mapping technique

Be small-scale maps made by generalizing the mesoscale cartographic materials However, for landscape mapping this way there is currently little real : large and medium-sized landscape maps compiled based on field surveys of landscape , still extremely rare.

Obviously , you need to use all the other sources , giving direct or indirect information about the character of the landscape . Valuable material in this situation are primarily medium- topographic maps . Their landscape is rich enough load . It is only important skill to interpret and use it . On the vast territory now available sectoral nature -themed cards : geomorphological, soil , vegetation, etc. They have a lot to say about the landscape structure of the district. Image spatial differentiation of various natural ingredients they are strongly generalized , hide , usually ambiguous on maps of different subjects . As a result, significantly hindered their adjointanalysis .

This landscape interpretation of topographic maps and cartographic materials industry is only possible with a combination of desk and field research , in which the individual components are not taught , and natural integrity - Geosystems .

Nomenclature landscapes fixed as catalogs or array of punched cards , which records all the essential properties of typed geosystems in general and constituent elements . To facilitate the use of the nomenclature of every kind of landscape derives its operating geographical name .

For space imaging becomes possible drafting specialized evolutionary dynamic landscape maps .

52. Overview of analysis and modeling of data in a GIS

GIS-based data analysis and modeling is a relatively young field of research , covering a wide range of issues of creation and use of geographic information systems (GIS) , remote sensing ( RS) , the associated mathematical methods and algorithms , computational technologies .

GIS designed for the collection , storage, analysis and graphical visualization of spatial data and related information presented in GIS objects. In other words, a tool that allows users to search , analyze and edit digital maps , as well as additional information about the objects , such as building height , address, number of occupants .

GIS - the analysis is the process of finding spatial patterns in the distribution of your data and relationships between objects .

The advantage of modeling in GIS is the ability to transform the space (or aerial ) image directly to a map projection , bypassing the construction of a model or a traditional photogrammetric fotogrammetrichesyue transforming images. This feature is available in GIS packages , primarily associated with the processing of remote sensing data .

53. Describe the essential labeling concepts in ArcMap

ArcMap allows to create cards and to work with cards. In ArcMap it is possible:

* to consider, edit and analyze your geographical data.

* to make request of your spatial data to find and understand the relations between geographical objects.

* to symbolize your data in the most different ways.

* to create charts and reports to transfer your understanding to another to users.

* to place your cards in the representation model "that I see, I will receive".

With ArcMap it is possible to create cards which integrate data with a big variety formats, including шейпфайлы, coverings, tables, drawings of AutoCAD of the image, a grid, a network

ArcMap uses the powerful environment of editing and automatic control of data which is applied to creation, storage and check of topological integrity, and also to editing of spatial objects with the general geometry.

ArcMap provides geographical information as a set of layers and other elements of the card. On the card usually there are the frames of data including layers of the card for this extent, a large-scale ruler, an arrow of the North, the heading explaining the text, a legend, etc.

ArcMap - the main ArcGIS appendix which is used for the solution of various GIS-tasks, both the general profile, and highly specialized. The list of typical tasks is given below:

* Work with cards -- you can open the documents ArcMap and work with them to study information, to consider maps, to switch on and off layers, to create inquiries to the attributes of data presented on the card, to visualize geographical information.

ArcMap contains a set of tools for the user control. In particular there are opportunities for writing of the program superstructures expanding functionality, change user information under the needs, automation of tasks by means of geoprocessing.

54. Overview of importance of cartographic methods in the study of geosystems

Cartographic method of research - research method is based on obtaining the necessary information using maps for scientific and practical poznaniyaizobrazhennyh them phenomena.

The method of mapping natural geosystems is mapping features landscape differentiation territory. Small-scale mapping object are landscaped province , country; medium- landscaped areas , large-scale landscapes and their morphological structure .

Facies be mapped on a scale of 1: 5000 and larger tracts of 1: 10 000 - 1 : 50 000 , landscapes 1: 100 000 or less.

Compilation of large-scale map passes through an exhaustive field work .Mesoscale mapping NTC combines detailed studies on key sites and route observations . For small-scale mapping of landscape map prepared in laboratory conditions . In the border selection verifies that routing method.

A special role is played in landscape mapping map legend , is a model landscape classification NTC or other ranks . In general scientific basis of the legend of landscape maps should be put structural genetic principle .

Synthesis maps of natural landscapes and sources of anthropogenic impact mapped schemes allows us to characterize the current state of the PTC and to map natural and man-made systems. Their mapping involves determining the structure of land in each of the landscape stand out, typing on NTC predominant types of human impact .

55. Describe the methods of geocoding

Geocoding - the method and process of positioning of spatial objects with respect to a coordinate system and their attributes . Necessary for geocoding tabular set of coordinate data - latitude and longitude coordinates of X and Y , street address , a spatial database file , in which the coordinates will be the location of a search , as well as the establishment of these coordinates of a point object with the specified attributes . Geocoding methods can quickly create cartographic database for information relevant text gridded . Besides street address coordinate existing templates to create objects by the city and administrative units, postal codes and other districts. There are three different methods of geocoding . Selecting one of these methods is determined by which problem should be solved with the help of geocoding precision with which must be placed on the map objects created and what data are available to perform the geocoding . Coordinate geocoding requires for its implementation , in two fields to the geocoded table contained values of X and Y. When geocoding for each table entry point object is created with the specified coordinates . When coordinate geocoding can also perform the coordinate transformation of objects created . This is useful if the coordinates contained in the table are given in a coordinate system different from the coordinate system of the map. Coordinate geocoding - this is the easiest method of geocoding , which at the same time the most accurate place created objects on the map. Geocoding on objects based on the point-like objects created by binding to the position of an existing object type. This method of geocoding used , for example, if a mappable table contains the list of objects of interest ( shops, service stations , etc.). Determine the position of an object by its address - a task that every person not just have to decide on practice. To solve it enough to have a detailed plan of the city , which shows all the buildings and their addresses are . Then the position of the desired object can be determined with an accuracy up to the building . Address geocoding based on the approximate calculation of the provisions of the newly constructed object relative to the specified linear obekta.Prodolzhaya analogy with the plan of the city , one can imagine such a plan that does not have the addresses of specific buildings , but for every street in every quarter marked the minimum and maximum addresses of buildings quarter

* Accuracy of coordinate objects at the address geocoding depends on how strongly objects vary in size , corresponding to different addresses.

56. Overview of information sources of creating a landscape map

Physical map depicts the natural territorial complexes , natural geosystems . In this sense, it is always compared with synthetic via separate natural components or factors and combinations thereof . Scale maps are in functional connection with its purpose . Relation to landscape maps it is determined primarily by the choice geosystem level at which the mapping. The scale of 1:1000000 1:4000000 correspond well to the regional order geosystems . Main unit depicted on them , we should recognize the landscape. These scales allow showing landscapes with large classification granularity and not only as a holistic education , but also by their structural differentiation elementy.Zametim that allow these scales along with landscapes show as separate circuits some large tracts that probably should use without fear of partial impairment unity Coverage rank geosystems . 1:1500000 scale maps , and even 1:2500000 1:4000000 presented in domestic regional scientific reference atlases tend to show types of landscapes . Sometimes categories of species aggregated by merging into a single group of several closely related species . Systematic approach to mapping the landscape structure of the territory outside the analysis assumes the internal organization - the morphology of landscapes - deciphering their external linkages geosystems of the same rank and with the ambient geosystems higher ranks . This problem is basically solved using landscape classification laid down in the map legend , and relevant pictorial means . Information load landscape maps is reflected in a number of sections and legends corresponding system of symbols : a) types of landscapes ( characterized by the dominant tracts ) quality color background , combined with curly nets or colored backgrounds shadings ; indices ;

b) basic natural complexes ( subordinates and facies tracts ) - scale symbols , background and localized ;

c) modification of anthropogenic landscapes - black ( or color base) background shading icons . The largest share of information is contained in the first section of the legend ( a). It is here in the form of generalized centered structural-genetic classification of landscapes. On small-scale maps of landscape it is presented in the form of text or legends, or as the legend table. Text differs with large information capacity . It allows you to set off the most subtle , the specific features of the structure of various types of landscapes. But, unfortunately , this version of the legend is usually attached high volume, wordiness , plenty of repetitions. Text legends often used for small-scale landscape maps on a relatively small area regions with a small set of types of landscapes.

57. Describe the stages of design a landscape map

Each landscape study completed with the preparation of the landscape map , on which are depicted with their PTC borders , given the ecological assessment of forest lands. In drawing up the landscape maps using different sources of information: aero - and cosmic rays, and general geographic variety of thematic maps .

The method used for the background of qualitative characteristics of qualitative phenomena solid (soils, geology , landscapes) or, rarely, scattered propagation (population , people ) . When using it, the territory is divided into qualitatively similar contours ( isolatedly), which are colored or hatched in accordance with the qualitative characteristics .

Graphical tool in this process can serve as a color ( flat background color different color tones , different degrees of lightness , saturation ) , midtones , and different patterns of shading intensity , filling notation alphanumeric codes (but due to the low visibility they are not widely and are used primarily as an additional symbol , a kind of explanatory captions ) .

Border isolated circuits in the implementation of this method may be a barrier , clear, ie when passing through them qualitative trait changes dramatically. But more often it happens that the selected boundary is transitional , conditional , ie quality change occurs gradually . In the latter case, give drawing a clear boundary between the familiar linear impractical better use banded color.

Point method is used for the transmission of scattered propagation phenomena ( rural population , livestock and crops) . Visual means is a set of points of equal size, each of which has a certain "weight" - value of quantitative indicator

58. Overview of splitting a polygon in ArcMap

To split a polygon, use the Cut Polygons tool, then draw a line across the polygon. The cut operation updates the shape of the existing feature and creates one or more new features using the default attribute values for the feature class.

When you are splitting polygons, make sure your sketch cuts completely through the selected polygon. Edge snapping often helps ensure that the cut operation is completed successfully.

When working with geodatabase features, you can set up split policies that control the behavior of an object's attributes when it is split.

You can use the Cut Polygons tool to cut a hole inside a polygon, like a cookie cutter or a donut. So the sketch line snaps to itself, add the Snapping toolbar, click the Snapping menu, then click Snap To Sketch. Then, simply create a line sketch that closes on itself by double-clicking precisely on the first vertex of the sketch to finish it. You now have two polygons: select only the inner polygon and press the DELETE key.

Steps:

1. Click the Edit tool on the Editor toolbar.

2. Click the polygon you want to split.

3. Click the Cut Polygons tool on the Editor toolbar.

4. Click the map to create a line that cuts completely through the original polygon as desired.

5. To change the shape of the sketch segment, click a construction method type on the Editor toolbar or on the Feature Construction mini toolbar. Segments can be created using a variety of methods--for example, as straight lines, with curves, or traced from the shapes of other features. You can also use keyboard shortcuts or right-click to access a menu of commands to help you place vertices in the sketch.

For example, to create the sketch by tracing a line or polygon edge that overlaps the polygon to cut, click the Trace construction method on the Editor toolbar palette and click and trace along the existing feature. You might use this if you want to split a forest polygon by a stream line that runs through it.

6. Right-click anywhere on the map and click Finish Sketch.

59. Overview of creating and editing annotation in ArcMap

Using annotations - is one way to ArcGIS for storing text is on the cards. Annotations are used to describe specific spatial objects , and to provide general information about the map. Annotations provide flexibility in the presentation and placement of your text, as you can choose from various parts of the test and edit them. When you work with annotations geodatabase annotation feature class stored in a geodatabase , you can use the editing environment ArcMap, to create and edit annotations in an editing session . Before creating annotation objects , using these tools in ArcMap, you must create a class of objects in a geodatabase annotation . Once you have created a class annotation (annotation feature class), you can perform some tasks: Creating annotation feature classes using various methods of construction and changing the location of the annotation and their appearance. Additionally, you can use keyboard shortcuts to perform editing annotations more effectively.

Annotations are stored in a map document can be edited in ArcMap, but not in the editing session . You can use various tools located on the Drawing toolbar (Draw). Tools in the toolbar editor (Editor) cannot be used for editing annotations card ( stored in the map document ) .

Create a new annotation . Create a window object and the Editor toolbar provides the tools needed to create a new annotation objects . In New Object , you can choose the method of constructing a new annotation : horizontal , curved , callout etc. Once the tool is selected , a window appears Building annotations , so you can enter the text of the new annotations to determine how the text will be placed , and replace the default annotation properties , as specified in the template object. New abstract, posted on the map will look like the text that appears in the construction of annotations , preserving the size and format ( reference scale in the window is not considered) .

The default build tool - one of the properties of the layout objects. It is activated when you select a template in the Create objects . For example, when creating annotations, which is the name of the road or the river, as a tool for constructing the default , you can select the tool Follow along an object that is used to create annotations, form the next line or polygon . To set the properties of the template object , double-click the Create objects .

When you edit annotations, you can change the properties of the symbol for the annotation . If you find that performing too many edits to the display settings , you can try to create a new symbol (pattern) , instead of every time to make a lot of edits in the generated annotations.

editing annotations

You can use the editing tools in ArcMap, to edit the standard annotations (standard annotation) and object- related annotations (feature-linked annotation). The main tasks when editing are resizing, moving , rotating, and the use of different modes along the following objects for your annotations.

You can use the editing tools , including the Edit Annotation tool (Edit Annotation), to change the appearance of annotations. You can change the appearance of annotations using the Edit Annotation tool in conjunction with the window attributes (Attributes). You can select an annotation object and click the right mouse button , using the Edit Annotation tool to open a menu containing many editing functions annotation objects .

60. Defining of tables and attribute information in ArcMap

Tabular information is the basis of geographical objects , allows you to visualize , build queries and analyze your data. Simply put, the table consists of rows and columns , all rows have the same columns . In ArcGIS strings are called records, and columns - fields. Each data field can contain a single type , such as numbers , dates, or text.

Feature classes are really just tables with special fields contain information about the geometry of objects. These fields include Shape field for point, line and polygon features and BLOB field object classes for annotations . Some fields, such as a unique identification number (ObjectID) and Shape, added , populated and maintained in ArcGIS automatically.

ArcGIS allows you to associate records with records from one table to another through a common field, known as a key . Create these associations can be a variety of ways, including temporary association or binding tables on the map or creating relationship classes in the geodatabase that allows you to get permanent associations . For example, you can associate the table land owners with a layer of land , because they have a common field of parcel ID.

Sources tabular information

Tabular information may be contained in the form of tables in folders or databases , text files , database queries , etc. File tables are stored in folders on disk.

Tables in databases or geodatabases can contain certain types of information that are not supported in the file tables.

You can query this database tables or geodatabase to create new tables . Create a table query tool (Make Query Table). Queries can be used for joining the tables or for fetching data from the original data set .

Tasks performed with tables and attribute information

Tables allow to map and visualize your data. You can use population data to display large cities larger characters than the characters used for the smaller cities and towns. You can also use different colors to represent each type of land use in the layer plots. In addition, you can use the attribute values for the formation and signing of the text portion of each object . Attribute data allow you to perform spatial analysis and spatial queries . When information in the geodatabase, or database changes , you need to upgrade your attributes . Tabulated values can be changed in the table (Table) or the Attributes window (Attributes), which only displays the individual attributes of the selected objects. The geodatabase includes functionality to improve , maintain your tabular data, and monitor their integrity.

ArcGIS also allows you to convert the data in the table in the spatial data. If you have a list of addresses you can use geocoding to compare them with the known locations on the streets to create point objects. Also , by linear bindings you can show events along linear objects using only the ID and position. Tables are also underlie data models - templates that you can use to create a geodatabase for better modeling real-world phenomena .

Размещено на Allbest.ru