Modern landscape planning

In modern landscapes biota is the most active component of the substance of the lithosphere , on the contrary , has the greatest inertia , and only thanks to the constant circulation of water , penetration of oxygen , carbon dioxide and organisms exposed to the substance involved in the cycle . Abiotic components of the landscape are the foundation and geological terrain.

18. Describe the polar and sub-polar landscapes

For centuries, humankind has been fascinated with the harsh winds, vast frigid waters, and landscapes built of ice and snow in the polar/ subpolarecoregion.

The extreme climate and unique landscape have attracted explorers seeking adventure and compelled people to create new methods to live in these inhospitable conditions.

The region is a complex ecosystem composed of the vast, deep, ice-covered Arctic Ocean, surrounded by the continental land masses that include Alaska, Northern Canada, and Eurasia. Encompassing a range of landscapes from mountains and glaciers, to flat plains and wetlands, the Arctic landscape is shaped by temperature and the processes of freezing and thawing. This landscape provides a variety of habitat types for the many plant and animal species that call the region home.

Due to the role that the ice and cold climate of the Arctic landscape play in regulating water levels and salinity in oceans around the world, the region is closely linked to a variety of different ecosystems. While the Arctic is considered one integrated system, three specific ecosystems are often identified within it: terrestrial , freshwater , and marine. Throughout these three systems, the cold climate, rather than their geological history, is the principal factor that gives them their distinct characters.

Terrestrial Due to biting winds, sub-zero temperatures and months on end with little sunlight, few species can survive in the Arctic. In fact, Arctic fauna account for only about 3% of the global total and their diversity tends to diminish with increasing latitude.

Freshwater

Freshwater streams and wetlands are among the most abundant and productive ecosystems in the Arctic. Some of the world's largest rivers are found throughout the region and almost all are created by rainwater and/or melting snow and ice flowing on top of permafrost. The freshwater flow into the surface of the Arctic

Ocean is a main factor in the formation of ice cover. Without this freshwater flow, warmer Atlantic Ocean water would melt the ice. Together with lakes and ponds, arctic wetlands are summer home to hundreds of millions of migratory birds.

Marine

Much of the marine ecosystems of the Arctic consist of shallow water, coastal shelves, and vast sheets of ice. Marine waters are cooled greatly by freshwater that enters them from surface runoff and from glaciers melting on land. Because it reflects solar radiation back into the atmosphere, sea ice regulates exchanges of heat, moisture, and salinity in the polar ocean. In addition, the ice serves as a key habitat for polar bears, seals, and walruses

19. Overview of the stages of mapping of the geosystems

Currently, studies are underway with landscaped system positions. From the standpoint of geosystem approach landscape - is a complex formation of natural, natural-anthropogenic and technogenic origin.

It should be noted that mapping of landscapes in different aspects does not lose relevance and feasibility of allowing to overcome the well-established trend of "old-fashioned" of landscape. Revival of regional landscape studies closely linked that landscapes and their morphological units are subject to environmental analysis as part of integrated geo-ecological assessment area that determines the direction of landscape planning and landscape policies towards sustainable development.

Studying the structure of natural and anthropogenic geosystems is based on two integrated physical-geographicalmutually complementary methods profiling and landscape mapping substantial part of which developed into complex physiographic studies.

The method of mapping natural and anthropogenic geosystems. The method of mapping natural geosystems is mapping features landscape differentiation territory. Small-scale medium-landscapedmapping object are landscaped province, country; landscapes and their morphological structure.areas, large-scale

Method of complex physical-geographical profiling. This method is widely used in traditional landscape, landscape-geochemical, geophysical landscape, landscape-ecological and applied research. The main aim of landscape profiling - identifying relationships within the PTC and conjugation complexes with each other.For more complex profiles defined confinement conjugate facies tracts, areas to the local topography, lithology, groundwater level.

Currently, studies are underway with landscaped system positions. From the standpoint of geosystem approach landscape - is a complex formation of natural, natural-anthropogenic and technogenic origin.

It should be noted that mapping of landscapes in different aspects does not lose relevance and feasibility of allowing to overcome the well-established trend of "old-fashioned" of landscape. Revival of regional landscape studies closely linked that landscapes and their morphological units are subject to environmental analysis as part of integrated geo-ecological assessment area that determines the direction of landscape planning and landscape policies towards sustainable development.

20. Overview of the modern technology for mapping of geosystems

Relevance of research. With the rapid development of computer technology becomes relevant search generic methods and algorithms for evaluating characteristics receive different territories and conduct spatial analysis on them. Modern GIS technology can be used as a basis for the development of the above methods. Description, analysis and forecasting of individual properties territory requires attracting a huge number of different-quality information about objects and phenomena of nature and society. Problem pairing the total volume of information can be solved by using GIS technologies, which give an opportunity to link all the materials into a single system.

In the development of the theory of spatial planning on the basis of GIS aerokosmosemokagrolandscape developed technologies, agro-ecological and functional mapping of the design and construction of sustainable agricultural landscapes and sustainable agricultural production.

One of the areas of landscape planning is the design and construction of sustainable agricultural landscapes. Sustainability of agricultural production based on the use of landscape, adaptive, resource and precision (precision) of crop and forage production in biologizing different natural agrolandscapes device.

The task is to separate the design of agricultural landscapes agrogeosistem - physiographic wholes natural host (plains, plateaus, river and lake terraces of rivers 1st order, lowlands, midlands, woodlands, meadows, rivers, lakes) areas and natural-anthropogenic (settlements of and cottages on a rural area, arable land, hayfields, pastures, are in private plots) of land. In addition to these lands agrogeosistema includes most susceptible to human impact of natural and man-made land - industrial infrastructure of agricultural organizations, including farmland.

21. Overview of landscape dynamic concepts

In ecology, many terms have been defined to explain the state of a system over time, how readily that system state changes, and the trajectory of change in response to a disturbance or perturbation. Of course, identifying system state changes requires identifying state variables that are descriptive of the system state. Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to identify state variables that are sensitive to fine-scale changes in ecosystem states and that can be used by managers to detect system changes due to a management activity, although we will explore some useful measures later.

A number of system descriptors serve as organizing concepts for the study of systems dynamics.

* Stability.-The tendency of an ecosystem to move away from a stable state. In the case of ecological systems (which are highly dynamic), stability refers not to stasis of all state variables but to variations within some defined bounds. Instability results when the system crosses some threshold from which recovery to a former state is either impossible (e.g., extinction) or, if possible, occurs only over relatively long periods of time or with considerable subsidies of energy and matter (e.g., loss of topsoil).

* Persistence.-The length of time an ecosystem remains in a defined state (i.e., within some range of variability).

* Resistance.-The capacity of an ecosystem to adsorb or otherwise dissipate perturbations and prevent them from amplifying into large disturbances. Resistance mechanisms may be thought of as filters that reduce the potential for large disturbances or as those properties-of systems and individuals-that maintain relative constancy in processes and that prevent organisms from succumbing to some stress.

* Resilience.-The capacity of an ecosystem to return to the preperturbation state following a disturbance. Refers to the bounds in state space around which a system will vary but return to preperturbation state. If the system moves outside these bounds, it will move to another state.

While the state to which the system recovers is unlikely to be an exact replica of what existed before, it nevertheless contains the same basic elements (species richness, habitats, soil fertility) and supports the same key processes (e.g., photosynthetic capacity and nutrient and hydrologic cycles). In other the words, system integrity is maintained.

* Recovery.-The speed with which an ecosystem returns to the preperturbation state following a disturbance.

22. A new approach for landscape mapping

A new approach for describing the morphological character of a continuous landsurface is introduced. This new approach uses recent geocomputation advances as a fillip for reassessing geomorphological theory. During this paper three important components of the new approach that distinguish it from most pre-existing mapping frameworks are outlined. Firstly, the new spatial information application considers a landscape to be inherently complex, and so intends to describe diversity as well as to generalise. For this purpose the new spatial information application uses an information database approach, with multiple layers, filtering from raw analyses through to synthetic interpretations. This contrasts with approaches that only produce a single static classification map. Secondly, several geomorphic domains are considered, both separately and then in combination, to provide an overall landscape description. These domains are: the general shape of each location across a landscape, the attributes of each location in relation to relevant geomorphic processes, and the properties of each location in relation to its catchment position. The use of these three domains contrasts with frameworks that only consider general shape in a simplistic manner. Finally, for describing broad-scale morphology the new approach uses digital morphological data, made available through developments such as DEMs. This contrasts with frameworks that use surrogate information sources, such as photographic imagery, to deal with large mapping areas. The principle of using digital morphological data reflects the aim of the new application: to be a rigorous framework for the creation of physically meaningful landscape descriptions.

23. Overview of landscape resources at the national level

Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations (stewardship).

Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural landscapes interact. It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity conservation, and the future sustainability of industries like agriculture, mining, tourism, fisheries and forestry. It recognises that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity of our landscapes, and their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in maintaining this health and productivity.[1]

Natural resource management is also congruent with the concept of sustainable development, a scientific principle that forms a basis for sustainable global land management and environmental governance to conserve and preserve natural resources.

Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources.[2] Environmental management is also similar to natural resource management. In academic contexts, the sociology of natural resources is closely related to, but distinct from, natural resource management.

24. Overview of landscape as territory Landscape as territory

Territory is the material base for landscape. Territory-landscape is a concept related to “governance”, “planning” and “sustainability”. If all territory is landscape, then all territories deserve the same consideration, regardless of whether they are natural, cultural, protected, quality or damaged. As already mentioned any territory needs government, overcoming the sacred separation between the protected (either natural or urban) and the rest, where everything goes”.

The landscape is the appearance of the territory.

1 For a long time, the term “landscape” has had a purely scenographic meaning, almost without content other than its aesthetic references.

The term “landscape” was used in the Latin sense of locus amoenus, rather than in that of prospectus. However, modern landscape sciences have radically changed this perception.

Indeed, we now say that any fragment of territory, natural or intervened by human beings, makes up a landscape; that is, a set of physical and functional references, which can be considered as a phenomenon in itself. The landscape reflects the environmental reality of each place, while it condenses the history of the anthropic process - that is, originated by man - which has been able to develop in it.

Therefore, the concept “landscape” is, in fact, a socio-ecological algorithm.

The contemporary landscapes of most countries - in any case, of all industrialised countries - are constructed landscapes. The process began many centuries ago, through the transformations introduced by agricultural and stockbreeding activity. In this process of constructing the landscape we have recently reached very advanced levels through the dominant presence of buildings and infrastructures. The construction of the built landscape is a major element of modern socio-ecological reflection, but should not lead us to lose sight of the centuries-old process of non-building landscape construction

25. Describe the landscape construction: factors in relation to systems, structures and materials

Landscape construction traces its roots to the early public parks in Europe and Great Britain. Since parks were popular places for carriage rides, leisurely strolls, and courtship rituals, they needed to be imbued with a sense of culture and civilization while, at the same time, preserve and maintain the unspoiled beauty of Mother Nature. This involved defining broad paths for horses and pedestrians, constructing bridges over streams, clearing away unsightly rocks and dead trees, and providing benches and shelters for people to respectively rest and get out of the rain. Unless one was wealthy and had servants to tend to their private gardens, individuals who lived in cities had little more than window boxes to "dress up" the exteriors of their dwellings; those in rural regions only planted vegetation that could be harvested and sold. Not until the advent of residential suburbs did homeowners finally have front and backyards that could be landscaped - a scenario that continues to require them to consult a professional to help them get it right and hire a gardener to keep it from becoming overgrown.

Types

There are three types of landscape construction. The first is residential, which involves properties that are meant to be lived in by individuals and families. These can be anything from a cozy bungalow to a Beverly Hills mansion to an apartment or condominium complex. The second kind of landscape construction pertains to commercial facilities such as office buildings, restaurants, shopping malls, amusement parks, golf courses and stores. The third type is environmental design. A botanical garden, for instance, would fit this model because it's not only an educational setting where visitors can learn about indigenous plants but also where horticultural experts can effectively study the challenges impacting a region's fragile ecosystems

26. Describe the GIS Software Module for mapping of landscape

A GIS also can be used for complex modeling to answer a wide range of "what if" and ecosystem simulation questions. These may be cartographic models designed to document the co-occurrence or interrelationship of multiple data layers or they may be hypothetical research models designed to mimic natural ecological systems. Similarly, modeling with GIS can be used to predict the impacts that one set of parameters will have on another. For example, wetlands, soils, hydrography, climatology and elevation data can be combined to model flooding within a river system. Upstream changes in land use within the same system can be modeled to determine the potential impact of conversion of a forested floodplain to residential development or to agriculture. As a result, both natural system responses to storm events and the impact of human land use decisions can be assessed prior to the proposed action.

Regardless of the application in which GIS technology is used, these systems provide rapid data access and multidimensional analysis and graphical output capabilities that can result in more effective resource management decisions.

27. Landscape models and explanation in landscape ecology

Models play an important and increasing role in landscape ecology, in large part because the sheer size of landscapes makes field studies logistically difficult. Similarly, landscape dynamics unfold over time scales that are difficult to embrace empirically. For both of these reasons, it is difficult to conduct experiments that would allow landscape ecologists to assess alternative management scenarios or to assess the potential impact of anthropogenic change scenarios (climate or land use change).

Models can take on many different forms, including both physical forms (e.g., miniature replicas of real systems, such as model cars) and abstract forms, including verbal models constructed from words, graphical models depicted as pictorial representations and mathematical models defined using symbolic notation to define relationships describing the system of interest.

According to Turner et al. (2001), a model is any abstract representation of a system or process.

Landscape models are typically of the mathematical kind, although we often construct and use abstract conceptual models to portray landscape relationships.

There are so many different types of mathematical models used to explore landscape ecological relationships, that a precise definition of a landscape model is difficult. Landscape models may be described and classified in various ways, and there have been several such attempts to do so. None of the classifications are entirely satisfactory, however, due to the growing complexity and hybridization of models

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.[1][2][3]

As a highly interdisciplinary science in systems ecology, landscape ecology integrates biophysical and analytical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.[2][4][5] The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and scale, and its focus on broad-scale ecological and environmental issues. These necessitate the coupling between biophysical and socioeconomic sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and

28. Overview of landscape, time and process

Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land, including the physical elements of landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect the living synthesis of people and place vital to local and national identity. Landscapes, their character and quality, help define the self-image of a region, its sense of place that differentiates it from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. Landscape may be further reviewed under the following specific categories: landscape art, cultural landscape, landscape ecology, landscape planning, landscape assessment and landscape design. The activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land is named Landscaping. Throughout the 19th century. The term "landscape" in geography refers mainly to the external appearance of the territory or to the topography (eg "erosional landscape", "hilly terrain"). The first scientific definition of L. belong Russian geographers of the early 20th century., Especially Berg (1913), who saw in him a harmonious combination of natural components (topography, climate, soil, vegetation) delineated by natural boundaries, and treated it as a "geographical individual" and the main object of geographical research. In foreign geographical literature, the term "Landscape "was particularly widespread in the 20-30s., and used in different ways, mainly in respect of all the characteristic external features of the earth's surface, including the various manifestations of human activity (cultivated fields, villages, roads, etc.) . Only a few, mostly German, geographers (S. Passarge, K. Troll later) sought to determine the landscape as a natural unity. In modern Soviet geography of landscape is understood as a natural system . Development of the doctrine of the landscape , mainly in terms of the development of ideas Berg , led to the formulation of the representation ( often called regional) of L. as the main stage of the system of geographical systems and integral territorial unit with strictly limited scope and content . According to this view , developed in the 30- 40s . 20 . L. Ramenskoye, A. Grigoriev , SV Kalesnik and further detailed sound NA Solntsev , VB Sochava etc. , LG has a specific territory , homogeneous in origin and history of having a single geological foundation , the same type of terrain, the general climate, uniform combination of moisture and temperature , soil biocenosis and logical set of morphological parts - and facies tracts. Some geographers ( AG Isachenko etc.) noted as a significant criterion of L. homogeneity and indivisibility of both the zonal and the zonal aspects. Each L. , in turn, is part of a complex taxonomic units physiographic zoning - physiographic zones , countries , regions and provinces. L. Examples of this understanding - Izhora Hills (Leningrad region) ,Balti steppe ( Moldova), Verhneteberdinsky landscape (Greater Caucasus ) . Some researchers ( DL Armand , JK Efremov , FN Mielke ) treat L. city as a concept, not limited taxonomic scope , ie, as a synonym for natural territorial complex (See natural territorial complexes ) . In this sense , the L. can be called and the steppe zone and East European ( Russian ) Plain and mire . Individual geographers ( NAGvozdetskii etc.) the concept of " L. of " investing typological content , ie one landscape include multiple sites , which can be geographically separated, but have similarity in its essential features of nature ( steppe landscape , marsh landscape ) . L. can be distinguished not only on land but also in the oceans , but the study of underwater landscapes is still in its infancy .

29. Defining of landscape genetics

Landscape genetics is an approach for understanding of how geographical and environmental features structure genetic variation at both the population and individual levels. Importantly, landscape genetics:

a. does not require that discrete populations be identified in advance;

b. emphasizes the processes and patterns of gene flow and local adaptation; and the analysis involves detection of genetic discontinuities and the correlation of these discontinuities with landscape features.

Landscape genetics is an emerging discipline that combines the fields of population genetics and landscape ecology.

What is Gene Flow?

Gene flow is the incorporation of genes into the gene pool of one population from other populations. In this regard, it is important to distinguish between the processes of dispersal and migration as defined from a genetics perspective.

* Dispersal - the permanent movement away from the site where an organism was born (i.e., its natal site). Note dispersal refers to the movement of an individual away from its natal site; it is not necessarily true that the individuals genes will be incorporated into the new population, since this requires successful reproduction.

* Migration - refers to the movement of genes from one population to another accomplished by individuals that move and breed in a population other than their birth site. Migration, as defined here, equals gene flow. Note, migration is defined somewhat differently by biologists, where it generally refers to the periodic (typically seasonal) movement of individuals between geographic locations.



30. Describe the landscape design of small recreational or civic spaces

Landscape design is an independent profession and a design and art tradition, practised by landscape designers, combining nature and culture. In contemporary practice landscape design bridges between landscape architecture and garden design.

Many landscape designers have an interest and involvement with gardening, personally or professionally. Some integrate this scope with their design practice, informally or as licensed landscape contractors. Gardens are dynamic and not static after construction and planting are completed, and so in some ways 'never done.' Involvement with landscape management and direction of ongoing garden direction, evolution, and care occurring depend on the professional's and client's needs and inclinations. As with the other interrelated landscape disciplines, there can be overlap of services offered under the titles of landscape designer or professional gardener.

31. Describe the application of GIS in regional landscape planning

With the recent opening of the borders between Western and Eastern Europe, formerly separate dneighbours have been developing new economic and cultural contacts. The expansion of the internal European market has created new forms of cooperation and links within Europe. Bavaria, the Czech Republic and Austria are at the centre of this new development process, their borders meeting in theheart of Europe.

The Bavarian Forest, Bohemian Forest and Mьhlviertel are situated at the intersection of these three countries - a ecologically, sensitive landscape of low mountains, connecting rather than dividing the three very similar regions. Issues of environmental protection, economic development, housing and infrastructure, traffic management and general problems of regional planning and information have had to be addressed for this beaufiful region containing two national parks. The formerly marginal and undisturbed region divided by the Iron Curtain became subjected to a sudden increase of traffic, tourism and development after the opening of the borders.

Under contract of the Bavarian Ministry for Regional and Environmental Affairs, the Czech Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Office of the Upper Austrian Provincial Government, a trilateral concept has been created by an international expert group of ecologists, regional planners and GIS specialists, using a central GIS for collection of different data from the various information sources of therespective countries.

The GIS played a central role as an integration tool and as an issue-based Information System to deliverbasic information and strategic concepts for the decision makers in the region, as well as those in the state governments.

The tremendous effort involved in creating a trilateral GIS and its successful application for strategicmanagement and policy led the UNESCO to recognize the development concept as an International MAB (MAB and the Biosphere) Pilot Project.

The project was subsidized by 50 % European Economic Community funding as part of the INTERREG Programme.

32. Describe the significance of landscape planning for the environmental assessment

Of other plans and programmes In landscape planning the existing condition of nature and the landscape is determined and assessed on the basis of legal and functional objectives and standards, which also includelandscape planning objectives at a higher level. To this end the available data and informationis collated and, where necessary, it is supplemented and updated by additional surveys. The fundamental information on the soils, geology, bodies of water, air and climate, fauna and flora is used to deduce statements regarding the performance and functions of the individual natural resources and/or the balance of nature and the landscape overall. The combination of different landscape factors and the interactions between the natural resources are also significant for performance and ability to function. Apart from the description and assessment of the landscape functions (current condition and development potential),statements for specific areas are made on the sensitivity of distinct (sub)landscapes toimpacts as well as on the ability to restore their performance and functional capability. Landscape planning can be better used as a versatilely usable information basis for overall spatial planning, impact mitigation regulation or environmental assessments if the informationis presented according to the requirements of this planning and these instruments. As the legal basis of the various planning and instruments partly name natural resources as sensitivereceptors, partly landscape functions, it should be possible to access landscape planninginformation structured both by natural resources and landscape functions. This can be achievedby appropriate linking of standard text units in digital landscape plans. It is also advisablenot only to be able to select specific individual cartographic areas but also to easily find andcollate text statements on special landscape units. This service will assist the administrationsor project sponsors in consolidating the respective relevant area descriptions for commentsor environmental assessments. The effort spent on these preparations pay off because theinformation is so conveniently accessible and is easier to integrate in other planning andinstruments

33. Describe the application of Remote sensing in regional landscape planning

Remote Sensing application in Landscape Planning studios; and the potential integration in design and planning studios during the five years BLA (Bachelor of Landscape Architecture) program.

Furthermore, determining the prerequisite courses, that may influence restructuring the department educational plan. The paper consists of five sections: 1-Introduction. 2- studio structure and concept. 3- lecture series, and fieldwork. 4- software and techniques. 5- a conclusion, synthesizes the potential use of GIS and Remote Sensing in landscape planning studio and possible improvements to the process used. One of the most effective ways of learning process associated with technical skills is through the problem-solving exercises of Problem-Based Learning (Dias, 2004). The authors noticed that theoretical teaching of GIS and Remote Sensing is not enough to develop the skills needed in professional practice, therefore the studio structure aimed to integrate the lecture series with studio assignment, in order to provide students with the chance to apply the theoretical knowledge, in a simulation of real life application.

34. Defining of purpose of landscape classification

Landscape classification is the basis of the researches on landscape structure, process, and function, and also, the prerequisite for landscape evaluation, planning, protection, and management, directly affecting the precision and practicability of landscape research. This paper reviewed the research progress on the landscape classification system, theory, and methodology, and summarized the key problems and deficiencies of current researches. Some major landscape classification systems, e. g. , LANMAP and MUFIC, were introduced and discussed. It was suggested that a qualitative and quantitative comprehensive classification based on the ideology of functional structure shape and on the integral consideration of landscape classification utility, landscape function, landscape structure, physiogeographical factors, and human disturbance intensity should be the major research directions in the future. The integration of mapping, 3S technology, quantitative mathematics modeling, computer artificial intelligence, and professional knowledge to enhance the precision of landscape classification would be the key issues and the development trend in the researches of landscape classification.



35. Overview of sustainability of geosystems to techno genic influences

The ecological stability of a geosystem is understood as the possibility to resist against various fluctuations (both natural and anthropogenic) for a determined period and also as the possibility to guard the structural and functional unity that would be favorable to the man.

Ecological risk is a probability of some losses resulting from the ecologically unfavorable processes or disorders caused by the land reclamation or by water-building practice.

In case of a synchronized development of several unfavorable processes occurring in boundaries of a geosystem the risk calculation takes into account that they all will take part in deteriorating the area, i.e. it will be equal to the sum of risks of each unfavorable process (soil, hydrogeological, engineering-geologic etc.) for all geosystem components and risks, initiated by rejections of technical systems and structures. We use data of actual observation or polyvariant simulation of hydraulic engineering measures etc.

The allowable risk is determined under the condition of preserving the geosystem index in the field of sustainable states.

The geosystem stability to the impact of both land reclamation and hydraulic engineering measures must be estimated on the base of comparing alternative designs of the proper impact and agricultural activities.

The estimation of geosystems ecological stability should be based on the natural and genetic approach taking into consideration ecological and ethical problems. Mathematical simulation of various types of loads of land reclamation and hydraulic engineering is used and probability for designed variants is computed.

Probabilities of system escaping beyond allowable limits have to be predicted for various loads. These variants of stability destruction risks for the geosystem as well as the probable size of ecological, social and economic damages must be estimated. Predicted results should be followed by suggesting measures for increasing stability in the agricultural production and also by determining reasonable limitations for impacts of both water building and land reclamation. Ecological stability of the region development should be ensured.

36. Defining of landscape planning contents

Landscape planning is a branch of landscape architecture. According to ErvZube (1931-2002) landscape planning is defined as an activity concerned with reconciling competing land uses while protecting natural processes and significant cultural and natural resources.

Urban park systems and greenways of the type planned by Frederick Law Olmsted are key examples of urban landscape planning. Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work. Landscape planners can look beyond the 'closely drawn technical limits' and 'narrowly drawn territorial boundaries' which constrain design projects.

Landscape planners tend to work on projects which:

are of broad geographical scopeconcern many land uses or many clientsare implemented over a long period of time In rural areas, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons for a public demand for landscape planning.

37. Overview of landscape planning levels and modules

In the interests of efficient planning with division of the work involved among the appropriateparties, the different contents of landscape planning should each be primarily shown on those planning levels on which they can most effectively be implemented (level-specific tiering). The planning task of landscape planning is therefore first of all comprehensively performed within teraction of all plans at the different scale levels. Regional nature conservation and landscape management requirements and measures aredescribed state-wide in landscape programmes or are described in more concrete terms for individual regions in landscape structure plans. The local requirements and measures are shown in landscape plans 2). Each respective higher level planning forms the functional orientation frame work for the subordinate planning level. To enable close interlinking with the spatial and urban development planning - especially withrespect to landscape planning contributions to environmental assessments of these plans and programmes - it is advisable to draw up landscape planning at all levels of the overall spatialplanning represented in the respective federal state

38. Describe the landscape metrics: conceptual foundation

Landscape metrics measure the geometric properties of landscape features andecological functions and their relative positions and distribution. Traditionally, landscape metrics have sought to quantify the structure and distributional pattern

of landscape elements that have an obvious physical presence on the landscape such as plants, animals, geographical features, and human settlement patterns. Much less developed, and the focus of this paper, is the structure and distributional pattern of human perceptions of land scape including the human attribution of place values, perceptions, and preferences. We argue that the human process of valuing landscapes results in structural and distributional patterns on the landscape that although not directly observable, constitute latent patterns of social and psychological complexity that can ultimately be measured and quantified. There appears to belarge potential for this type of social research including landscape metrics useful for landscape management and planning

39. Defining of landscape and geosystems in the local level

Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land, including the physical elements of landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect the living synthesis of people and place vital to local and national identity. Landscapes, their character and quality, help define the self-image of a region, its sense of place that differentiates it from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape may be further reviewed under the following specific categories: landscape art, cultural landscape, landscape ecology, landscape planning, landscape assessment and landscape design. The activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land is named Landscaping.

Geo Systems (IGS) is a computational architecture system developed for managing geoscientific data through systems and data integration. Geosciences often involve large volumes of diverse data which has to be processed by compute and graphics intensive applications. The processes involved in processing these large datasets are often complex that no single applications software can perform all the required tasks. Specialized applications have emerged for specific tasks. To get the required results it is necessary that all applications software involved in various stages of data processing, analysis and interpretation should effectively communicate with each other by sharing of data.

40. Defining of map projection and its classification

Map projection, transfer of the features of the surface of the earth or another spherical body onto a flat sheet of paper. Only a globe can represent accurately the shape, orientation, and relative area of the earth's surface features; any projection produces distortion with regard to some of these characteristics. The particular projection chosen for a given map will depend on the use for which the map is intended. Some projections preserve correct relative distances in all directions from the center of the map (equidistant projection); some show areas equal to (equal-area projection) or shapes similar to (conformal projection) those on a globe of the same scale; some are useful in determining direction. Many map projections can be constructed by the use of a light source to project the features of the globe onto a piece of paper (although in practice one performs the operation mathematically rather than with a light); other projections can be constructed only mathematically. Projections are classified as cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal according to the method of projection with a light source; many projections that can be constructed only mathematically are also classified according to this system.

Maps classification should meet necessary logical conditions. First of all, sequence of passing from more general notion to some more particular, i.e. course of general notion division into peculiar parts. For example, all topographic maps are divided into geographical and subject, but it wouldn't be right to divide all digital topographic maps into geographical, subject and geological, because the last represent one sort of topographic map of nature phenomena, which in its turn is a class of subject maps. Secondly, in every stage of digital topographic map classification it is necessary to apply certain basis of division.

41. Defining of map scale and its classification

The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. This simple concept is complicated by the curvature of the Earth's surface, which forces scale to vary across a map. Because of this variation, the concept of scale becomes meaningful in two distinct ways. The first way is the ratio of the size of the generating globe to the size of the Earth. The generating globe is a conceptual model to which the Earth is shrunk and from which the map is projected.

The ratio of the Earth's size to the generating globe's size is called the nominal scale (= principal scale = representative fraction). Many maps state the nominal scale and may even display a bar scale (sometimes merely called a 'scale') to represent it. The second distinct concept of scale applies to the variation in scale across a map. It is the ratio of the mapped point's scale to the nominal scale. In this case 'scale' means the scale factor (= point scale = particular scale).

If the region of the map is small enough to ignore Earth's curvature--a town plan, for example--then a single value can be used as the scale without causing measurement errors. In maps covering larger areas, or the whole Earth, the map's scale may be less useful or even useless in measuring distances. The map projection becomes critical in understanding how scale varies throughout the map.[1][2]

When scale varies noticeably, it can be accounted for as the scale factor. Tissot'sindicatrix is often used to illustrate the variation of point scale across a map.

Large scale, medium scale, small scale

Maps are often described as small scale, typically for world maps or large regional maps, showing large areas of land on a small space, or large scale, showing smaller areas in more detail, typically for county maps or town plans.

42. Describe a quick tour of map layers

Layers display in bottom to top order so that subsequent layers render on top of previous layers. Each map layer references data stored in a map service, tiled service and so on, rather than actually storing the geographic data. This API can support a wide range of layer types: tiled layers, dynamic layers, feature layers, graphic layers and many others including image layers, WMS layers, and Bing map layers.

The Map Layers application is a powerful and versatile tool for annotating the Map, giving you the power to import, overlay, and analyze external map data. Map layers can be derived from Google Earth KMZ files, GPS exchange files, or Shapefiles. You can stack multiple layers and toggle them on and off. Layers can be selected, filtered, and assigned custom colors based on their shapefile properties, and new properties can be derived mathematically from existing ones.

Use existing shape files to add political boundaries, geographic features, census and survey data, and other types of data to your analyses, then use the Map Layers helper to export your own annotations to other software programs.

43. Describeaboutdisplayinglayers

To select the layers to display in your application, you connect to one or more GIS servers and choose the map services you want to add as layers to your map. You can overlay map services from ArcGIS Server, ArcIMS, ArcWeb Services, and OGC (WMS) servers in one Web application. The map services appear as layers in the Web Mapping Application and allow users of the application to work with the individual sublayers within the map services as well.

Each layer in the Web application has a set of properties that you can configure. For example, when overlaying layers, you can set the transparency so that you can see underlying layers. By default, the background of all but the bottom layer is made transparent. You can also set properties on the sublayers inside a layer. For example, you can adjust the field aliases and visibility, set a drawing symbol, and control how attributes display when running tasks that use the sublayer as input.

44. Describe the stages of adding layers to a map

A map without data layers is sort of like an artist with a blank canvas. The data layers that you add to your map give it meaning and set the stage for analysis. There are two primary types of map services that provide data layers that can be added to your map: dynamic map service layers and tiled map service layers.

Dynamic map service layers reference map services that create a map image on the fly and then return the image to the application. This type of map service may be composed of one or more layers of information. For example, the Demographics map service displayed in the figure below is composed of 9 different layers representing demographic information at various levels of geography.

While they can take somewhat longer to display in a client application since they must be generated “on the fly”, dynamic map service layers are more versatile than tiled map service layers in that you can control the features displayed through layer definitions, set the visibility of various layers within the service, and define temporal information for the layer.

For example, in the Demographics map service layer detailed above you might elect to only display Census Block Groups in your application. This is the type of versatility provided by dynamic map service layers that you don't get with tiled map service layers.

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