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Contents

Introduction

1. Literary translation: Science and Art

1.1 Translation: a general overview

1.2 The essence and the features of literary translation

2. Translation transformations: A basic concept of translation

2.1 Classifications of translation transformations

2.2 Grammar transformations and their types

3. Analysis of grammar transformations in literary works

3.1 «Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children» by Ransom Riggs

3.2 Summary of the analysis of «Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children»

3.3 «I Am Legend» by Richard Matheson

3.4 Summary of the analysis of «I am Legend»

Conclusion

References

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D



Introduction

The famous Soviet writer Daniil Granin, reflecting upon the significance of translators in the context of cultural interaction, quoted Alexander Pushkin, who called translators «the postal horses of civilization». The comparison may be crude, but it does not lack its truth. Indeed, if we look at human history from a perspective, we will see a number of trends, among which is the dialogue of nations and the tremendous impact this has had on all people in general and the common good of all human civilization. Building communication was not possible without those who could transmit information from one language to another, without translators.

The world we are living in today is the product of the simple truth that some time ago people who lived in very different areas of the continent as well as on different continents found a way to break down the language barrier and forever change the image and the very essence of each other. It's not just about forging diplomatic ties, alliances, truces, and wars, but also cultural influences in the context of fiction, poetry, music, and so on. This makes translators almost one of the pillars of the construction of the modern world.

Translators have always held a special status in the community, and one can hardly find anyone who would question the severity and significance of their services. However, many people underestimate and simply do not know how difficult translation work is. It can appear that translating from one language to another is a process, albeit one that requires intense mental processes, but it is nothing more than translating phrases and sentences from one language to another. It can be seen that the translator's work reveals a whole layer of rules, patterns, frameworks, approaches and principles. This complexity of their occupation is for a reason that the translator is working with the language that is the material plastic, subject to change over the course of human history itself, where even the seemingly single word over time either loses its meaning or becomes an archaism, not to mention the cultural and stylistic features. So, too, the translator, as a person who speaks a certain language, must take the latter and a number of other subtleties into account.

It is quite easy to see that this definition is expressed in scientific language. The scientific approach in understanding the translation is the work is as important as increasing the vocabulary of the translator by memorizing individual words, phrasal verbs and idiomatic expressions. Successful use of the latter requires an in-depth and meaningful understanding of the structures of both languages. This is especially true in the translation of literary texts.

Literary translation itself is one of the most complicated and demanding types of translation because of its specific nature and the effort that the translator has to put into it.

Furthermore, Literature is one of the main companions of our cultural and intellectual development. Since infancy, we are exposed to both folk and foreign fairy tales and stories, we let them pass through us, we learn from them and take their protagonists as role models. Subsequently, as teenagers and adults, we strive to get to know the masterpieces of national and world literature. Translators in this context act for us as guides to other worlds, epochs and cultures.

M.R. Lvov describes literary fiction in this way: «Fiction cannot exist inside the confines of scholarly and restricted norms of linguistics. The writer employs a diverse range of techniques to reveal the entire wide-ranging nature of the source text, employing various literary stylistic types as well as taking into account the features of the verbal language of literary protagonists, the genre focus, revealing dialogues and even the way in which certain parts of the text are spelled out. [1]

This circumstance, along with numerous others, such as the conveyance of emotional coloring, expressive forms, metaphorical language, cultural and national characteristics of the substance, sets the translator the task of paying his attention to even the most seemingly insignificant details. Nevertheless, literary translation is the only type of translation in which the translator can fully reveal their creative language, show their flexibility and express himself/herself in a way that allows the reader to get the maximum level of insight into the work and the author's intention.

However, the translator has also an advantage in the form of knowledge of certain translation regularities and the use of translation transformations, which are usually divided into grammar, lexical and lexical-grammar transformations.

Translation transformations (in other words - inter-linguistic transformations) act as a kind of bridge between the original and the translated text, adequately conveying the content, meaning and emotional coloring of the work, which makes this topic one of the most discussed and studied in translation studies.

Linguistic scientists of all stripes have tried, are trying and will try to bring the principles of translation transformations to perfection, creating different classifications and breathing new life into them.

My thesis is devoted to examining grammar transformations in the translation of literary texts from English into Russian. This pair of languages is already interesting to study in itself, especially in the context of this topic, which well illustrates how two languages belonging to different language families, with individual punctuation, stylistic and grammar structures, interact with each other.

The need for their study and the use of grammar transformations is also justified by the fact that there is now a popular belief that over time machine translation will replace human translation, but in the course of my thesis I will try not only to prove the importance of human presence in translation, but also the impossibility of replacing humans with machine translation.

The topicality of the research, in this regard, is based on the fact that many people will never stop reaching for literature while new works will be written regularly, so that translators will always be challenged to produce quality literary translations using a variety of transformations, without which a decent translation cannot be imagined. On the one hand, grammar transformations are such an important topic in the context of the translation discipline that they have been one of the most studied topics practically since the very beginning of translation studies, and on the other hand, due to the specificity of the language and its flexibility, they will always require a meaningful update.

The problem of the research is reflected in the impossibility of using and studying grammar transformations in isolation from other types of translation transformations, which is reflected in the theoretical and practical parts of my thesis.

The object of the research is grammar transformations and their in-depth theoretical analysis within literary texts.

The subject of the research is the novels «Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children» by Ransom Riggs and «I am Legend» by Richard Matheson. This is primarily due to the fact that, in my opinion, a timely and relevant study requires contemporary material, as well as consideration of how modern translators, who received their education based on the Soviet school of translation, approach the translation of grammar transformations into Russian.

The aim of the research is to prove the relevance of grammar transformations in the context of literary texts translation and to prove their topicality in contemporary translation studies and the impossibility of their use apart from other types of translation transformations.

The objectives of the research I have outlined:

1) To examine translation as a scientific discipline from the point of view and evaluations of such scholars as V.M. Komissarov, L.S. Barkhudarov, Y.I. Retzker, Fedorov A.V., Shveizer A.D, Gak V.G., Kolomeytseva E.M, Lvov M.R., etc.

2) To provide a general, but sufficiently detailed overview of the literary translation, its features and difficulties that arise when working with this type of translation and to lead to the reason why machine translation will never replace the human translator.

3) To present a general idea of translation transformations and give several classifications proposed by Y.I. Retzker, V.N. Komissarov, L.S. Barkhudarov.

4) To analyze grammar transformations in pieces of work and to determine the patterns of their use.

5) To examine if the classification of grammar and complex transformations I have formed is effective and see if the classification I've formed is relevant.

The hypothesis of the research proceeds from the assumption that grammar transformations cannot be used independently without using a mixed type of transformations, which I will try to prove through the analysis of literary works.

The theoretical importance of the research lies in the fact that my thesis can be used both by translators and by scholars of linguistics as a basis for research, study and enrichment of the topic of grammar transformations in the context of the new vision proposed by me, as well as a view of the topic under consideration in my analysis of grammar transformations in literary works written by contemporary authors and translated by contemporary translators.

The practical importance of my research is formed by the fact that: 1) The analyzed material is new, which means that in further research and the work of other translators the reference to this study will express the relevance in terms of time; 2) I will try to prove the practical relevance of the derived classification, which means that others both translation students and researchers can use it; 3) The analysis of my work will be valuable in terms of knowing the grammatical foundations of English sentence structure, which reflects the significance of my research in the context of teaching translation.

The methodological basis of the research is the derivation of general patterns of use of grammar transformations through the prism of the Transformational model of translation, familiarization and consideration of the features of translation of literary texts, knowledge of context, artistic detail and other important aspects of translation.

The theoretical basis of the research consists of the works of main scientists-linguists belonging to the Soviet school of translation as a reliable and verified by numerous researches source of reliable information.

The methodological basis of my research is represented by the transformational method of translation, derived by V.N. Komissarov and the classification of grammar transformations created by him.

Methods of the research include theoretical research of translation science, literary translation and translation transformations to derive patterns of realization of literary translation in the context of grammar transformations and the problem of their isolated use to identify the grammar and mixed transformations used in them. To achieve this objective, I will use a comparative analysis of passages in the original and translation, presented in the form of tables for convenience.

The structure of the research is a generalized information of the aforementioned points. The first part is theoretical and contains generalized but comprehensive information about translation science and literary translation. This is followed by a presentation of the essence of translation transformations in general and their classifications and grammar transformations. This emphasis on theoretical aspect stems from the idea that understanding the essence of grammar transformations arises from a consistent understanding of the principles of translation as a phenomenon and of literary translation in particular. The second part is devoted to the essence of translation transformations as a basic concept of translation, its functional aspects, as well as the examination of its types, one of which is grammar transformations. The latter is followed by the abundant quantity of examples. The third part is centred around the analysis of grammar transformations in literary works, incorporating the finding from the previous chapters and offering an updated view of this topic by using the classification of grammar and complex transformation I created.



1. Literary translation: Science and Art

1.1 Translation: a general overview

The significance of the translation activity cannot be overestimated. As previously mentioned, the entire history of mankind and its development is tied to the communication that the most ancient civilizations, speaking different languages, established between themselves via translators. Despite this, translation studies took its scientific shape much later, namely in the twentieth century. This unprecedented surge in the services of translators was due to the key historical events taking place at that time: World War I, World War II, and the Nuremberg Trials that followed, during which, for example, the standards for simultaneous interpretation were actually established, which many interpreters still use today.

This gave a powerful impetus to the development of the science of translation, which, being quite extensive and still developing, is currently attracting the interest of scientists engaged in a variety of fields of different sciences. Meanwhile, literary translation existed much earlier, going back to the translations of the first versions of the Bible. However, the basic principles of both interpretation and translation were outlined later. This fact, on the one hand, creates problems because of constantly renewed or emerging theories and classifications, but, on the other hand, allows us, as translators, to make our own contribution to this fascinating and socially important science.

It is worth beginning with the basics, when the science of translation began. If Peter the Great was the one who broke through the window to Europe, scientists such as Y.I. Retzker and A.V. Fedorov broke through the window into the scientific understanding of translation, formulating the first, though raw, principles of translation theory, which are of immense scientific importance, as well as the regular order of translation activities. It is impossible to imagine what the science of translation would be without these revolutionary ideas, which were ahead of their time. It is the creation of a theory called linguistic or, in other words, the theory of regular correspondences, which is based on a science that is poorly understood and does not consider translation in the context of more disciplines, but only from a linguistic point of view, is the brainchild of a pair of scientists.

One of the fundamental points of their theory is the creation of those basic regularities of translation at the level of the relationship regarding such grounds of the interacting languages as metonymic and antinomian form, concretization and generalization.

Scientists have also outlined the principles of communicative language competence, by which, firstly, refers to the level of communicative skills of the interlocutors and the level at which the act of communication is performed in the context of literacy; secondly, a number of aspects such as:

The ability to distinguish the stylistic orientation of the text, understanding the relevance and predetermination of the need to use certain lexical units, the choice of appropriate with regard to the context.

Knowing and taking into account the standards of communication within the differences of social groups, ages, communication culture, and gender.

No less important aspect, implying the ability to understand and competently use linguistic structural and grammar constructions in speech activities. [2]

The young and superficial theory has undergone changes, absorbing information from other scientific disciplines, which has helped, on the one hand, to make the translation activity more profound and versatile, and on the other, to get rid of imperfections associated with fixation only on the language aspect.

That theory of translation, which can be defined as being currently relevant mainly to fiction and bearing the name «communicative,» puts first the fact that language, as a means of communication, relates in these functions to translation. This means striving to convey the most voluminous emotional coloration as if the recipient was reading the originally written text. This theory has acquired its disciplinary image thanks to the scholars to whom I will refer more than once in my study - A.D. Schweitzer and V.N. Komissarov, because thanks to them Ican consider translation and grammar transformations in an orderly and expanded form, not to mention the understanding and modern appearance of translation activity.

However, communicative theory was also subsequently developed when the Slovak translator Anton Popovic suggested that the «author-text-recipient» formula should include the participation of the author's individual style, which will influence the perception of translation, as well as the involvement of the reader's individual lived experience, the fact of his personal literary preferences. This vividly demonstrates how many theories and ideas there are about the translation process, and each of them is both correct and in need of clarification. [3]

What is the essence of translation? Translation is not just an interaction of languages or a replacement of one structure by another, but, importantly, it is the difference in cultural layers, the depth of the personalities involved, the traditions in literature and the arts, ways of thinking and behaving, eras, and attitudes that have developed over the centuries that come to the fore: all this the translator, both interpreters and translators, have to encounter.

The ultimate point in any translation, whether technical or fiction-oriented, is to convey the essence and meaning as closely as possible to the original. In this regard, linguistic scholars in translation studies have identified two fundamental concepts, such as adequacy and equivalence. In a simplified sense, verifying the quality of a translation is verifying its «adequacy». I would like to quote the definition given by Z.E. Roganova: «translation can be considered adequate, when the semantic and stylistic identity of the original text is taken into account, making it possible to express the form of the original language and its content» [4].

Meanwhile, the equivalence of translation implies an evaluation in terms of content and closeness of the translation to the original.

To explain the essence of translation in the language of dry facts, I'd like to quote the definition given by L.S. Barkhudarov: «The process of transferring from a thought expressed in the source language to an equivalent idea in the target language, where an identical semantic load remains, is called the process of translation» [5].

The guarantee of a translation which can be considered full-fledged from the point of view of connections of a similar nature between the original source and the translation is the expression of the distinctive features of the former and the closeness to the distinctive features of the latter, taking into account their formal characteristics. «A full-fledged translation implies achieving a kind of equivalence in the boundaries of the whole and its component, just as expressing the essence of the whole through the component.» [6]

Complementary to this are a variety of transformations that are integral participants in translation, both oral and written, from the original language to the language being translated. However, it is worth noting that they, as well as the translation itself interpretation and translation, have strong differences and different focus.

On this basis, the meaning of translation can be conveyed as a generalized definition: Translation is the process of transformation into a message in the target language from the message in the source language. It is worth understanding that due to grammar and cultural differences, entailing different ways of translation, as well as the incomparable number of words in a pair of languages no translation can be regarded as perfect.

Without taking into account such factors as the social nature and essence of translation, it is not possible to provide an unambiguous definition from a scientific point of view.

At the level of the definition of translation we see such difference, but it still has a golden mean in understanding the essence of the translation process. The translators themselves, despite the seeming simplicity of translation, as correctly noted by V.I. Krupnov, «must:

1) Answer himself the question of whether he understands the essence of what he is going to translate, and then interpret it to himself;

2) Determine which means of expression from the original language are worth using in order to make the translation.» [7]

Meanwhile, according to V.N. Komissarov, translation consists of two equally important stages: a complete understanding of the original and its content by the translator and, based on this, the choice of the best version of the translation. The end point of these steps is a full translation. It is important to note that the translator in a wide range of cases may not be aware of why and how he came to a certain variant of translation; in this case, he is guided more by intuitive comprehension.

What is related to this is that at the stage of initial familiarization with translation, the translator builds their own vision of translation in their head, using their own knowledge and their vocabularial apparatus. At the same time, since these processes lie on the level of thinking processes, it is impossible to take an empirical approach to the study of translation as a phenomenon. The same as in psychology, for a more or less digestible comprehension of translation science and the processes describing it, scientists use the derivation of a variety of translation models.

In general, the translation model is presented as a variant of the process in which a number of equivalent and generalized psychological and linguistic laws and principles are applied to the translation activity. Such a need arises due to the above-mentioned impossibility to study translation comprehension by a translator directly, as a result, none of the proposed models can be comprehensive. However, it is important to clarify that each of the models that have been created before and will inevitably be created in the future has one goal: to get improved, taking into account the flaws and imperfections of the previous models, adopting the best and striving to bring the science of translation close to the standard.

Scientists, in turn, currently consider the situational, transformational and semantic models as the most appropriate to describe the essence of the translation activity and its basic principles, with the help of which it seems to achieve the closest transition of the text from the source language to the translated one. [8]



Table 1. Models of translation

Situational	Transformational	Semantic
Its root point is that a variety of linguistic techniques can be used to describe a variety of circumstances in translation. This is relevant when the language being translated does not have the units to describe or express the setting, so that the translator is given the opportunity, on the one hand, to recreate new ones, and on the other hand, to resort to using those that the translator has available at hand. On this basis, the translation activity in this model follows the given algorithm: 1) The translator comprehends the key ideas of the translation and decides what circumstances are represented in it; 2) The translator finds ways to express the circumstances with the necessary lexical adaptations. Figure 1 shows the reproduction of translation according to this model: In other words, the translation process takes place in two stages: from the original text to reality and from reality to the translation text. However, this model does not work when the original language retains forms of expression, which must be transmitted with the same emotional or stylistic coloration and cannot be changed by the lexical units used. As a consequence, its use does not seem relevant.	This model is based on the fact that there are syntactic models in the source and target languages that have common structural components that can be replaced in translation without losing meaning. Thus, translation under this model involves the free replacement of one root syntactic model by another. Through its analysis, this model creates space for reducing the variety of linguistic structural elements to a reduced number of translation techniques, which are still used today as one of the translator's main tools. According to this model, the translation is reduced to three steps: 1) The structures in the sentence of the source language which do not need to be analyzed in depth are transformed into the root structure of the same language; 2) Conversion within the source language into a root structure equivalent to the root structure of the target language. 3) Conversion of the root structure of the translated language into a final, approximation to the exact translation of the language structure to achieve the final translation. For example, «The dog barks.» From this I can derive structures such as «dog barking»,» dog's bark», etc., from which comes the approach to those structures that will help bring the translation to an adequate state.	This model is presented as, in the beginning, an analysis of the source text to highlight the root and main semantic elements that need to be taken into account in the translation and, in the end, which of them will end up in the final translation. Presenting in the form of sequential steps, the translator to begin with: 1) By analysis and comparison, the translator finds units of semantic content in a part that are equally meaningful to both the source and the translated language. 2) Determines and designates which of these semantic units can be reflected in the translation, given the same quantity and quality in the source text. Thus, the adequacy of the translation in this model is reflected in how many original semantic units are reflected in the translation.



In my turn, I am of the opinion that the transformational model proposed by V.N. Komissarov is more relevant both in the context of the whole science of translation and in my research, which effectiveness I will examine during the analysis.

Taking into account all of the above, I can conclude that translation is a rather vast and difficult to comprehend form of human activity. Many scientific fields consider the individual components of translation as a subject of research. In turn, the subject of translation studies may include other scientific fields. For example, aspects of translation such as literary studies, psychology, and ethnography are considered within its framework. The history of translation, irrespective of the author's origin and the culture he or sh e expresses, can also serve as an object of study.

No less extensive and rich is the list included in the framework of translation, which combines «poetry, fiction, popular science books, diplomatic documents, business papers, newspapers» [9].

Translation studies are commonly divided into several types, based on the subject of study. Among them:

l Psychological translation studies, which focuses on the psychology of translation;

l Literary translation studies.

l Historical field of translation.

Despite this, Linguistic Translation Studies bears the leading position in modern translation studies. [10]

According to a number of the founders of the linguistic theory of translation, the process of translation was supposed to be the central subject of this discipline. Later on, however, translation moved into the field of interlingual communication, which is recognized as a more correct approach. This was followed by the understanding that the field of study of translation studies aspects should include the result and the process of translation activity, all the parties involved in the dialogue, not to mention the factors affecting the translation process.

Thus, translation studies is a science that studies a variety of language intermediation and the study of translation itself.

The translation process has to go through many stages, which result in a coherent picture and make it possible to obtain an emotional, figurative and cultural response from the recipient from familiarity with the translated text.

Speaking of cultural response, there is an assumption in the translation environment that the translator must know partially and completely the culture of the source language. Regardless of the potential of this scenario, practice shows that not every translator knows it, so often they resort to translating certain components of the original text, or even full-fledged fragments through the prism of comparative, often superficial analysis. [11]

As an assistance to the translator when confronted with such difficulties and many individual ones come various manuals on aspects of the culture of the people of the language being translated, guides to grammar, and a variety of specialized vocabularies.

Undoubtedly, the personal experience of the translator in the context of the cultural component of the original text will be one of the determinants of a quality translation, although this is not a requirement. It can be seen that the emphasis in this situation is on the ambivalence of approaches to translation implementation, and the aforementioned manuals and reference books are only particular cases, whereas for the most part an adequate translation is achieved when the translator determines an appropriate and high-quality translation method and strategy, and also takes into account context, style, and other aspects. Thus, the translator must achieve two goals that are essentially polar to each other:

1. equivalence, that is, the actual semantic proximity of the transfer to the original source.

2. Equivalent emotional and aesthetic response through the prism of the cultural layer in the recipient when reading the translated text. [12]

Further, the translation is made taking into account the invariant (the unchangeable component of the content, which must be preserved in the translation, more details in Section 1.1), which is expressed in the form of an abridged or complete translation.

In the context /of my thesis, it is more relevant to use the full translation, which is a comprehensive (adequate) transfer of the text, not allowing abbreviations, omissions and maximum deployment of its substantive part.

Communicative translation is one of the ways of a complete translation. In terms of function and form, it is close to the literary translation, because it sets a goal to convey the emotional and aesthetic components of the content, the departure from the literal reproduction, which, as mentioned earlier, will be impossible to convey the emotional background of the work.

Communicative translation is the most appropriate for the translation of literary texts and other types of text, where the root essence, rather than literalness, comes first. Unlike an abridged translation, a full translation is aimed at careful reproduction of all the components of the informational ordering of the two languages.

Contemplating what the world would be like if there were no translation, which gave man the opportunity to disseminate and exchange knowledge, religion, teachings, social and political institutions, to keep within the framework of empires peoples speaking a multitude of languages is quite hard.

Translation has its roots in the periods of early human history, when one foremost language, due to different circumstances, began to be modified and transformed into other languages that were different from each other.

This created a need for those who had the knowledge and ability to interact in written and spoken form simultaneously in several languages, so that different communities could use them as intermediaries in communication, especially at the level of written texts, fiction, etc., translation of which is a rather distinctive process with underlying features, as will be discussed below.



1.2 The essence and the features of literary translation

In 2005 the Booker Prize, established the International Booker Prize. Why is this important? The main prize was awarded to English-speaking authors for works written in English, while the International Booker Prize, unlike, for example, the Nobel Peace Prize for Literature, did not simply divide the monetary prize between a writer and a translator, but recognized the latter as equal participants in the promotion of literature on the world stage. Such recognition of translation activity was a real gift for the latter.

In this section I will try to explain and reveal the essence of literary translation as one of the types of translation in the scientific field, prove the enormous importance of translators in the context of the work and the difficulties they have to go through when translating literary texts and explain why machine translation will never replace a human translator in the work on literary translations.

First of all, it is worth noting that literary translation is perhaps the most difficult type of translation. The complexity is due to the fact that only in the literary genre is imagery, emotional coloring, national, cultural and historical flavor, metaphoric and expressive elements. The translator has to put on a mask of an aesthete, a historian, a cultural historian, a detective, and most importantly, the writer himself. Without knowing each other, the translator enters into a kind of symbiosis with the author of the text, trying to see the world through his eyes, in order to convey his vision in the most attainable form. The translator, doing a literary translation, notes every important detail, takes into account many nuances, not translate at random, and painstakingly brings the text to perfection, conveying the most accurate wordplay, author's style, emotional coloring, aesthetic component, the context of the events described and the artistic detail. This is the reason why I.S. Alekseeva considers fiction to be «texts specialized in the transmission of aesthetic information» [13].

It cannot be disputed that literary translation is a process of both artistic and creative orientation. Fiction translation (in other words, translation of literary texts) in this case is an indicator, because when translating such texts the translator, in addition to understanding the interaction of the source and target languages, must have a sufficiently developed and flexible literary language. This fact sets the translator the task, on the one hand, to translate with an eye to scientifically grounded patterns and regularities of translation studies and, on the other hand, to weave a creative component into the translation.

The language of fiction keeps common parlance, words used in the poetic, elegant verse, use of swear words, professional technical vocabulary, and publicity. The main component here is the esthetic one.

From the point of view of translation studies, the literary style «is a synthesis of all the available genres of translated texts, which, accordingly, complicates the translation of literary style texts, but at the same time gives the translator a chance to reveal their creative potential» [14].

The conclusion I can draw here is that a special approach is needed to translate texts with a literary orientation. It does not seem possible to fit this type of translation into the framework of regularities due to the dryness of translation science. It is also important that the well-established approach in the society to mastering the native and target language is a systematic memorization of lexical units in a certain order: clichй-word-combination-word. However, during the study of language in any educational institution the above described order is violated: bypassing memorization of word combinations and colloquial clichйs, the student begins to form sentences using ready-made words. This is the reason why language learners, who often have extensive knowledge, face the problem of expressing the latter in written form.

A large number of scholars believe that regardless of the original language can be translated at the proper level, because the original language is a formed system in the context of the structure of grammar and syntactic and distinctive, as well as cultural content, which in our case is the English language. This fact is confirmed by the fact that in translating it is possible to transfer any specific features, as well as the style of the original text.

The presence of language means of different levels (lexical, syntactic, word-formation, phonetic, morphological) is characteristic for a literary text. The translator constantly resorts to them, because a literary translation, time and again, obliges the translator to show flexibility and representativeness of literary language, because only they guarantee an accurate and high-quality translation.

Literary translation in a general sense can be defined as the achievement of the possible identity, manner and style of the original text in the target language.

In turn, literary translation is divided into several types, each of which requires an individual approach:

translation of fiction prose,

translation of song lyrics

poetry translation,

translation of plays,

translation of satirical works and so on.

A literary work, as well as other forms of creativity, is primarily aimed at expressing the uniqueness of a certain people, country, culture, its traditions, realities and way of life.

As mentioned earlier, a successful literary translation is considered to be if the translator can convey the content, form and aesthetics of the work as best as possible.

In the translation of literary texts, an important place is occupied by such ways of expressing the text, which are difficult for the translator on the one hand, but their competent use ensures adequacy. They include:

l - Repetitions

l - Dialectisms

l - Epithets

l - Syntactic specificity of the original text

l - Comparisons

l - irony

l - Neologisms

l - Play on words, implying the multiple meanings of lexical units, carrying a certain semantic load;

l - Toponyms

l - Metaphors [15]

Literary translation, like any other translation, contains a number of principles that I would like to outline below.

The first and most important principle in literary (fiction) translation is to avoid a literal reproduction of the work from the original into the translated text. At the heart of a literary translation is the aspiration to convey the essence of the original without relying on its original grammar structure. The latter can be expressed through various transformations of the translation or be subsumed under the standards of the translated language. Such liberties are acceptable in literary translation, but not in technical translation.

It is important to understand that the specifics of the two languages obliges the translator to take into account such moments when not every detail of the original source lends itself to high-quality or full-fledged translation. These include, but are not limited to:

l The omission or elimination of any content details if the translator feels that they weigh down the text or cannot be conveyed with the expression of the author's intent.

l The impossibility of leaving certain information in its original form, since it will not reflect the realities of the original source and may not be understood by the recipient, so the translator turns to using a variety of substitutions and equivalent meanings.

l Adding new, clarifying or revealing information, because of possible peculiarities of the content, context and author's intent that cannot be translated directly.

l Consideration of adequacy, according to which a small number of transformations are allowed in the translation, which will directly affect the quality of the translation. [16]

Meanwhile, the translator in the work, trying to express the meaning, imagery and contextual correspondence of the original source, practically recreates a new text by virtue of the layer of meaning, adding various clarifications or omitting information that is not possible for the recipient to understand, as noted above.

Despite the above-described impossibility of achieving a completely accurate translation, a good literary translation that is close to the quality of the original, is possible if the translator has a creative (writing) and creative (initiative) component, in which he can, first, skillfully uses wordplay, a variety of translation (including grammar transformations) and translation options in sufficient quantity, and second, in the most achievable degree to preserve the authorial style. In this case, the translator acts as a kind of guide, or even becomes on a par with the author of the task of transferring content and substance. It is an undeniable fact that the translator has the important task of maintaining a golden mean between expressing his own understanding of the work and avoiding, as mentioned earlier, excessive literalism.

The second principle of literary translation is high-quality translation of any linguistic features of the original, such as phraseology, stable and idiomatic expressions, proverbs and phrases: all that in a literal translation may not fully express the essence of the original.

The third principle of literary translation boils down to the fact that the translator, as mentioned above, must have a developed literary language and a predisposition for writing talent. Without these qualities, he will not be able to evoke an emotional and sensual response in the reader, originally laid down by the author in his work.

The fourth and no less important principle of literary translation is to observe the cultural and stylistic characteristics of the original, as well as the transfer of lexical methods of the era and other nuances to the translation of which is worth approaching with special attention. To achieve this goal, the translator must study and pass through the spirit, the era, the culture of the work without missing anything that the author has seen fit to include.

As I.B. Golub notes, «the emotionality and expressiveness of the image come to the fore in a literary text. Many words that in scientific speech appear as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech - as socially generalized concepts, in fiction speech - as concrete and sensual representations» [17].

There is also a certain set of principles that reflect the quality of literary translation:

l Structure and order of lexical units.

Unlike Russian, the order of lexical units (i.e., word order) in English focuses primarily around a strict grammar sequence. The translator must understand where the semantic center of the sentence is and where the logical emphasis is.

l Identifying the appropriate words for the translation.

The translator does not always have a choice, when a word in a pair of languages does not overlap with an identical meaning, so the translator has to select the option offered, even though it may not fully reflect the original meaning.

l It is important to take the grammar component into account.

The translator needs to have an extensive knowledge of the functioning of English grammar because, as mentioned above, English, unlike Russian, pays more attention to grammar and its strict principles.

l Substitution of parts of speech and sentence members during translation.

When translating, it is occasionally necessary to replace one part of speech with another, especially if the original text lacks a lexical unit that can be translated. [18]

Another important concept of literary translation is invariant. Equally as an artistic detail, the translation invariant is one of the fundamental pillars of literary translation that makes translated literary texts so close to the original.

Being a scientific concept that displays numerical constancy in various manipulations, the invariant in its essence carries the same functions, implying the preservation of the individual semantic and underlying grain of the text, the loss of which would mean the loss of adequacy and incompetence of the translator. The translation invariant is an element inherent in both literary texts and highly specialized texts. However, in this case they will not be identical, but have different shades, because literary texts are dominated by the author's personality and the need to express it by a variety of means, while highly specialized texts can be reproduced with the frequent use of standard formulations and templates. [19]

At the same time, A.D. Schweitzer, speaking of the possibility of achieving an emotional invocation identical to the original, describes 4 elements, such as:

l Denotative meaning (the designation of certain subject situations),

syntactic meaning (the nature of syntactic links between the elements of the utterance),

l connotative (expressive, stylistic device)

l pragmatic meaning (the relationship between the expression and the participant of the speech act) [20].

Novice translators make the common mistake time and again of trying to find meanings for lexical units or phrases in isolation from the context of the entire text, that is, to take a single word, translate it, then the next one, and thus translate the entire text.

A text is a complete composition in which a logical connection is built between all the units, so selecting the appropriate ones for a particular situation is an important part of the translator's job. In order to translate a word, the situational and contextual point must be taken into account, otherwise the output text may turn out to be an incoherent and meaningless set of sentences.

As an illustrative example, I can take the word: «study. The first meanings that come to mind are «учиться», which is a verb, «исследование» is a scientific term, «набросок» is an architectural term. etc. In this regard, to translate it is necessary to take into account what situation the sentence refers to.

The context is commonly understood as the linguistic setting in which a particular linguistic unit is used. Thus, the context of a word is a set of words, grammar forms and constructions, in the setting of which this word is presented.

It is clear that a word is far from being the only unit of language; other linguistic (and speech) units, such as phonemes, morphemes, word combinations and sentences also occur not in isolated use, but in a certain linguistic environment, so that there is every reason to speak of the context of a phoneme, and of a morpheme, and of a word combination and even of a sentence (the set of other sentences in the environment of which a given sentence occurs). [21]

A translator, when implementing a process of translating a literary text, cannot use literary translation technique due to its incompetent grounds. In this case, what a translator has is an ability to ignore the original meaning, taking into consideration other possible meanings, which can only work when the word is surrounded by a specific combination of words.

The context in this case helps the translator to identify one or more permissible meanings, omitting any others (especially those related to informational or science-oriented texts). [22]

Е. M Kolomeitseva develops the concept of context by defining context into broad and narrow.

By narrow context she means a truncated context within a sentence. [23]

Broad context refers to the logical development of ideas beginning in one part of the text and passing into another (this means that a sentence read in isolation from the whole text may not be understood by the recipient because he does not know the context of previous sentences.)

Important in both broad and oral contexts is communicative equivalence. This concept, according to A.N. Mamedov, implies weaving the aesthetic and cultural background of the original source into the translation in order for the translation to fulfill its communicative function. [24]

The above points and regularities apply to an adequate, contextualized, word/phrase choice, but when it comes to differences in the structures of the two languages at the grammar, syntactic, and linguistic levels, the translator turns to translation transformations. This is covered in the third section, but for now I will just mention that before using translation transformations, the translator must also consider the context, the stylistic focus of the text, the linguistic and cultural information, the cultural adaptation of the text, the focus on a particular target audience (for example, if the plot of the novel unfolds during a war, a fantasy world, etc.). Taken together, this is all the information that will help the translator to reflect all the important details in the translation as best as possible.

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