Theory of translation (english and russian)

§1. FUNCTIONAL STYLE, REGISTER: DEFINITION

A translator has to deal with diverse texts, belonging to various styles and registers. The term `style' has acquired several definitions. First, it means the how of the text, that is, the way something is said, done, expressed (elevated, or bookish, neutral, and low, or colloquial styles). Second, the combination of distinctive features of literary expression, execution, or performance characterizing a particular school, person, etc. (Byron's style, baroque style). Third, the term `style' is often a reduction for `functional style', i.e., a language variety specific of a certain social sphere and characterized by a definite predominant function.

The concept of functional style has been developed in Russian (V. Vinogradov, M. Kozhina, D. Shmelyov et al.) and Czech (B. Gavranek, V. Mathesius and others) linguistics. American and British linguists use the term `register', which is close in meaning to functional style. Register is defined as the style of language, grammar and words used for particular situations.²²⁴⁵ C a m b r i d g e I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i c t i o n a r y o f E n g l i s h - C ambridge University Press, 1995. - P.1194.⁴⁵

There have been a number of classifications of functional styles. Most linguists single out everyday colloquial style, journalistic (publicistic) style, scientific and technical style, official, or bureaucratic style. All of them, except for the everyday colloquial style, are represented by informative texts, carrying an informative function.²²⁴⁶ К о м и с с а р о в В. Н. Теория перевода. - C.95, 97.⁴⁶ The status of literary style, or the style of imaginative literature, is controversial. Also disputable is the style of advertizing, as well as colloquial style.

All styles are subdivided into substyles and genres. They can be of written and oral forms.

A translator has to know not only special features of each style, but also the differential peculiarities of a style in the source and target languages.

§2. TRANSLATING SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STYLE

The main function of the scientific and technical style is informative. To convey logical information, prove its novelty and significance is the main goal of a scholarly, scientific or technical author. This style is used in professional spheres of science, humanities, technology.

The scientific and technical style involves the following substyles: scientific, technical, instructional (educational), popular science substyle. The substyles are classified into the following genres: monograph, manual, textbook, article, report, technical description, discussion, etc.

The distinctive features of scientific and technical style are preciseness, clear logic, compressive character, impersonality, formality.

Preciseness is a basic property of a scientific and technical text, and it should be strictly maintained in translation. A translator must be fully aware of what s/he is translating to render precisely the content of the text. Special attention must be paid to terms^** See part IV, Chapter 3. To translate precisely, it is not enough to know an equivalent of the term. It is crucial to know the exact place of the concept, denoted by the term, in relation to other concepts. Therefore, translators in science and technologies have to specialize in a foreign language and a particular subject field. In fact, there are two types of translators: linguist translators and engineering translators. The former usually require penetration into the subject matter, the latter need good language skills.

In specialized translation, search for interlingual equivalents is a time-consuming activity even for an experienced translator. Therefore, the mid-1960s and early 1970s gave rise to term banks, or terminological data banks, that is systems for storing specialized vocabulary in electronic form. Term banks are commercially available (TERMIUM, for example, is available on CD-ROM).²²⁴⁷ R o u t l e d g e E n c y c l o p e d i a ... - P.249.⁴⁷

Preciseness and reliability of a scientific text is also established with references and citations. The Russian style researcher N. Razinkina compared references with currency, by which scientists pay their intellectual debt to their predecessors.²²⁴⁸ Р а з и н к и н а Н. М. Функциональная стилистика. - М.: Высшая школа, 1989. - С.156.⁴⁸ The bibliography is considered to be a kind of social control over scientific value and reliability of the results of research.

In the target text, references in the source language and foreign languages are retained in the original form, so that the receptor would not search for a non-translated book, thinking that it has been translated. For the same reason a translator keeps untranslated quotations in a third language. (Though, for the receptor's convenience, the translator may do a quote translation in parentheses, footnotes or after-text commentaries.)

The translation of units of measurement depends on the system they are expressed in. If in metric system, weights, measures and quantities are usually retained. If expressed in imperial system (miles, pints, pounds, etc.), they are normally converted to the metric system.

Clear logic is achieved through a system of logical connections and interrelations. A stock of linking phrases will help a translator make a connection between a point in the past and future, to refer a receptor forward or back. For example, As we will see… - Как будет видно… As I said earlier… - Как было сказано раньше… Linking phrases help to develop a point (Moreover… - Кроме того… Despite this… - Несмотря на это…According to our estimates,… - Согласно нашим подсчетам…)^** A good base of linking “fillers” is provided by the dictionary: Ц и м м е р м а н М., В е д е н е е в а К. Русско-английский словарь перeводчика. - М.: Наука, (Сhichester, New York a.o., : John Wiley & Sons LTD), 1991.

A specialized text tends to emphasize thematic components by various means because the theme serves as a linking element between what has been said in the text and what will follow (new, rhematic element). English texts, though, often manifest their implicit character and do not verbalize the thematic component of the sentence. Therefore, in the more explicit Russian text, a translator has to extend the sentence by adding an implied thematic element: The fundamental principles of alternating current are presented in this chapter. Included are the basic principles of some alternating current machines. - В данной главе изложены основные принципы переменного тока. Здесь же изложены основные принципы действия некоторых моторов переменного тока.

Logical enumeration of classification in a scientific text is a matter of graphical hierarchy: first come Roman numerals (I, II, etc), then Arabic numerals (1. 2.), then, if necessary, Arabic numerals with a parenthesis: 1), 2), followed by capitalized letters (A, B), lowercase: a, b, or lowercased letters with parenthesis: a), b). It is advisable not to change the hierarchy of enumerating elements, since a different order will seem illogical. In marking the enumeration, the translator (like the author) should be consistent: the numeral I implies the numeral II. If the text receptor sees only the numeral 1), not to be followed by the numeral 2), s/he might be confused. After saying (or writing) a, it is necessary to say (write) b.

Economy and compressive character of the text. A scientific text must provide a reader with maximal information within a minimal time period and with minimal effort. This stylistic feature is achieved with lexical and grammatical means, such as: using compressive structures, like attributive clusters (a liquid rocket - ракета на жидком топливе), Complex Subject (these devices were proved to be sufficiently reliable), Complex Object (assume this to make…), reduced adverbials (if found), article ellipsis (General view is that…); abbreviation (PC = personal computer; CD-ROM = Compact Disk-Read-Only Memory; NC = Norton Commander).

It is necessary that a translator decipher all the abbreviations in the original (by using every available dictionary and reference book) and render them according to the standards. If the form has no standard abbreviated form in the target language, it is given in full form. The abbreviations that cannot be deciphered are retained in the source language.

Impersonality is a measure of the extent to which the producer of a text avoids reference to him/herself or to the receptor.²²⁴⁹ B e l l R. Op. cit. - P.187.⁴⁹ Such avoidance is far commoner in written than in spoken texts, and in Russian than in English. Using impersonal and indefinite structures, passive constructions, infinitive clauses, etc. provides the impression of the impersonal and objective style. Several experiments were run. - Было проведено несколько экспериментов.

As has been mentioned, in English texts a smaller degree of impersonality is acceptable, as compared with Russian. This results in a more frequent usage of personal pronouns (I, we, you) in English. Such sentences are often translated from English into Russian by infinitive clauses or impersonal constructions: If we introduce an extra member… - Если ввести лишний элемент…²²⁵⁰ К о м и с с а р о в В. Н., Р е ц к е р Я. И., Т а р х о в В. И. Пособие по переводу с английского языка на русский. - Часть II - М.: Высшая Школа, 1965. - С. 212. ⁵⁰

English instructions and directions normally list instructions in the imperative mood. To observe impersonality as a characteristic feature of a Russian technical style, it is recommended translating the imperative verbs by Russian infinitives:²²⁵¹ Ibid.⁵¹

To run test 3,… you need to attach the loopback plug to your EtherLink board.

To Attach the Loopback Plug

Locate the personal computer that contains the board you are going to test.

Identify the EtherLink board connector on the rear or side panel of the computer…

Push the loopback plug onto the round BNC connector and twist the sleeve clockwise one-quarter turn until it stops.

Для проведения теста 3 необходимо прикрепить разъем к плате Эзерлинк.

Чтобы прикрепить разъем, нужно

Установить компьютер с платой, подлежащей тестированию, на его постоянное место.

На задней или боковой панели компьютера найти гнездо платы Эзерлинк…

Вставить разъем в круглое гнездо BNC и повернуть муфту на ј оборота по часовой стрелке до фиксации муфты.

Some authors prefer to use the so-called `royal plural': we - мы. Today this usage is considered somewhat outdated. It is better to keep an impersonal style.

Formality. This feature results from the author's tendency to avoid connotative words in the scientific text. However, research by N. Razinkina and other linguists has shown that English scientific text is not void of expressive elements, which greatly differs from the Russian style. Metaphors and bright similes are not infrequent in the English scientific text: Many of us are amused by grammatical acrobatics. (R.Quirk). Since this feature is so different in English and Russian, translators generally leave out metaphors in the Russian translation according to the rule of functional equivalence.

§3. TRANSLATING BUREAUCRATIC STYLE

The basic function of this style is to regulate interrelations between the State and its citizens, among citizens, the community and its members, between governments, parties, enterprises, etc. This style serves in two spheres of activity - 1) administrative and legislative spheres; 2) business, public life, and community service. Respectively, there are two substyles: officialese and commercialese, or business language. The substyles are presented by the following genres: law, treaty, agreement, contract, act, bylaw, decree, constitution, charter, edict, interim, instruction, memorandum, certificate, letter, fax, telex, business plan, etc. These genres have a mostly written form.

The distinctive features of texts of this style are accuracy, standardization, directive character, impersonality, clear structure.

Accuracy is the utmost requirement of the bureaucratic style, for the ambiguity of documents can cause disastrous effects in business and community. A translator is responsible for making an accurate translation as close as possible to the source text. Even small details should not be neglected. For example, country names. If the source language document contains the full name of the State, it should be translated in full; if the name is shortened, the translation must be equal: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland - Соединенное Королевство Великобритании и Северной Ирландии; the United Kingdom - Соединенное Королевство (not Великобритания); Great Britain - Великобритания (not Англия). The only exception to the rule is Britain, translated as Англия, as the word Британия in Russian is stylistically marked.²²⁵² Ibid. - P.202-203.⁵²

In business, there is often need for pre-translation editing. The original author may be quite clear in his mind about what he is trying to say but, nonetheless, the translator may have great difficulty in understanding what the author intended. In many cases, the author will not have read through the text after having written it and will seldom, if ever, write with the translator in mind. In case of any doubt, the translator must ask the client.²²⁵³ S a m u e l l s o n - B r o w n G. A Practical Guide for Translators. - Clevedon, Philadelphia, Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1995. - P. 54.⁵³

Some legal translations demand notarisation and certification. In this case a translator signs his/her name to confirm the quality of the translation produced and certifies the translation (by witnessing the translator's signature and sealing) at the Notary or appropriate language center.

Standard character. To produce a translation of good quality, it is necessary to use standard terms. There may be concepts in law and business which exist in one country yet not in another. In this case a translator, producing the nearest accepted equivalent in the target language, makes footnotes, which give immediate reference to the item in question and draw the reader's attention to the fact.

The standard character of the “officialese” is made up of a number of set phrases, which must be kept in the translator's memory: on behalf and instruction of… - от имени и по поручению; I have the privilege to introduce…- имею честь представить…; Mr. X has the floor - слово предоставляется г-ну Х; the motion is open to debate - вопрос выносится на обсуждение; I second the motion - я поддерживаю предложение.

There are many archaic words typical only of this style: aforesaid - вышеуказанный, henceforth - впредь, hereby - настоящим, hereinafter - в дальнейшем, herein - при сем, therein - в нем, therewith - с ним, thereat - при этом. Though Russian equivalents may have no bookish ring, it is necessary to preserve the tone of official discourse, often by employing contextual substitutions, as was done in translating the phrase the earth and all therein - земля и все сущее на ней.²²⁵⁴ К о м и с с а р о в В. Н., Р е ц к е р Я. И., Т а р х о в В. И. Указ. соч. - С. 204-205. ⁵⁴

Standard vocabulary of the English bureaucratic style incorporates a number of foreign (mostly Latin and French) words and phrases. These phrases are less frequent in Russian business and official texts. Therefore, these phrases are normally translated into Russian unless they are well-known expressions. For example, condition sine qua non (mind the English reading rather than Latin)- непременное условие; ad hoc - специальный; per capita - на душу населения; pro rata - пропорционально; laissez faire - невмешательство; en attendant - в ожидании; fait accompli - совершившийся факт.^** See English-Russian translations in: К у н и н А. В. Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. - М.: Русский язык, 1984. - 846-852. Widely known Latin expressions may be transliterated in Russian (persona nongrata - персона нонграта, status quo - статус-кво), sometimes with changed spelling (a priori - априори), or transferred to Russian text in Latin letters (terra incognita, homo sapiens).

Words used in official texts are void of expressive connotation. Among variable equivalents a translator chooses the one with the most neutral meaning. For example, to grant is equivalent to даровать, жаловать, дарить, but the expression to grant a credit corresponds to предоставлять кредит. Similarly, fresh wording is translated as новая формулировка (not свежая), etc.

Russian bureaucratic language differs from English in using a great number of nominal structures instead of verbs. Nominal phrases, like производить осмотр площадки - to examine a site, наносить повреждение собственности - to damage property, осуществлять обслуживание техники - to maintain the equipment, provide a special formal overtone to the style.

The directive character of the bureaucratic style occurs by using the modal verb shall in English (even American English) and either the so-called directive present verb: The right of ownership for the goods and all risks of loss and damage to the goods shall pass from the Sellers to the Buyers … право владения товаром и все риски, связанные с потерей или повреждением товара, переходят от Продавца к Покупателю… or modal adjective in Russian: Packing shall secure full safety of the goods … Упаковка должна обеспечивать полную сохранность товара…

Impersonality of style is obtained by using the third person deixis, impersonal constructions, passive verb forms.

Clear structure is incidental to all genres of bureaucratic texts. Every genre has a special type of beginning [e.g., This is to certify that…- Данн(ая справка) выдан(а) … в том, что …- in certificates], ending [Sincerely yours - C уважением - in letters]. The structure of the document is also predetermined by its genre. For instance, contracts, as a rule, include the following parts:

Subject matter of the contract - Предмет контракта

Terms of payment - Условия платежа

Dates of delivery - Сроки поставки

Liabilities - Ответственность сторон

Packing, marking, shipment - Упаковка, маркировка и отгрузка

Quality - Качество

Acceptance - Приемка

Guarantee - Гарантия

Force majeure - Форс-мажорные обстоятельства (Обстоятельства непреодолимой силы)

Arbitration - Арбитраж

Other conditions - Прочие условия

Legal address - Юридические адреса сторон

Large documents are divided into sections, subsections, chapters, paragraphs, articles, clauses, items, points. These terms, but for the last three, have regular Russian equivalents - разделы, подразделы, главы, параграфы, статьи. As for the last three terms, they have multiequivalents: статьи, пункты, подпункты. It is almost irrelevant which term to choose; what is important is that the term correspondence be carried throughout the whole document.

Numbering by Latin letters infrequently occurs in English documents. In Russian translations, it is inappropriate to substitute Latin letters with letters of the Cyrillic alphabet, since it can interfere with quotation and interpretation at negotiations.

§4. TRANSLATING JOURNALISTIC (PUBLICISTIC) STYLE

The term `publicistic style' is a coinage of Russian linguists.<sup>2255</sup> G a l p e r i n I. R. , Stylistics. - Moscow: Higher School, 1977. - P.287.<sup>55</sup> Foreign researchers speak of different variations, like `journalistic language', `news media language', `newspaper language', `broadcasting language', etc.²²⁵⁶ C r y s t a l D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language - Cambridge University press, 1995. - P.380-387.⁵⁶

In Russian linguistics, the publicistic style is understood as a variety of language that carries out simultaneously two functions - informative and expressive - and is used in public and political spheres of activity.

This style incorporates such substyles (sometimes called styles) as newspaper, journalistic, oratorical, and propagandist substyles. Each substyle has particular genres. The newspaper substyle includes editorials, news stories, chronicles, reports, summaries (e.g., weather broadcasts, sports results, etc.). The journalistic substyle is made up of commentaries, comic strips, analytical articles, pamphlets, reviews, essays and the like. The oratorical substyle comprises speeches, sermons, and orations. And the propagandist substyle implies slogans, proclamations, appeals, promotions, commercials - the last genre, though, is now referred to as a new style of advertising.

The main distinctive features of the publicistic style are standardization and expressiveness.²²⁵⁷ К о с т о м а р о в В. Г. Русский язык на газетной полосе. - М.: Просвещение, 1971.⁵⁷ These features fulfill the two basic functions: to inform the readership as quickly as possible, which demands from a journalist the use of ready-made phrases, or clichйs, sometimes called journalese. Expressiveness results from the necessity to influence public opinion. The two tendencies are in perpetual conflict²²⁵⁸ Р е ц к е р Я. И. Теория и практика перевода. - М.: Просвещение, 1983.⁵⁸ - this is the distinctive feature of newspaper and journalistic substyles, first and foremost, which will be discussed here.

Expressiveness can be detected in lexical characteristics of newspapers, magazines and broadcasting, and also in headlines.

English mass media are abundant in connotative colloquial words and phrases, even slang: eyesore, blackleg, new words (drunk-driving, think-tank), abbreviations (champ for `champion', E. Germans for `East Germans'). Metaphorical and metonymical associations are not infrequent [Russia's perestroika has turned missiles into sausages. (The Daily Telegraph)], especially those connected with sports: An industrial port … received a serious blow… (Vladivostok News); Mortgage lenders call for curbs on `low start' advertisements (The Daily Telegraph). Epithets sometimes accompany nouns (strenuous political activity, aggressive grain exporters, the crystal-clear waters).

Though expressive, most metaphors in newspapers are trite and commonplace²²⁵⁹ Л е в и ц к а я Т. Р., Ф и т е р м а н А. М. Пособие по переводу с английского языка на русский. - М.: Высшая школа, 1976. - С.126.⁵⁹: We have also suffered the virtual death of such vital industries as machine tools, motor cycles, and shipbuilding. (The Guardian). It concerns both languages, English and Russian. For example, Russian дары тайги, труженики моря - metaphors turned into hackneyed phrases.

English and American journalists take liberties with well-known public figures, calling them by nicknames (Old Fox, the nickname of Adenauer, Gorby, Gorbachev, Rocky, Rockfeller, Ike, Eisenhauer), shortened names (Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carter; FDR - Franklin Delano Roosevelt, JFK - Jack Kennedy - John Fitzgerald Kennedy). Most of these short forms and all the nicknames are translated into Russian in full form, since Russian readership feel disrespect with these types of names.²²⁶⁰ К о м и с с а р о в В. Н., Р е ц к е р Я. И., Т а р х о в В. И. Указ. соч. - С. 214. ⁶⁰

Expressiveness of English and Russian headlines is based on different criteria. The English headline includes more colloquial words than a Russian headline.²²⁶¹ Ш в е й ц е р А. Д. Перевод и лингвистика. (Газетно-информационный и военно-публицистический перевод) - М.: Воениздат, 1973.⁶¹ Even if an article may be very serious and informative, the headline, to catch the reader's attention, may contain slang: Scramble to Unseat the Confident Mrs. Bain (The Guardian).

Many headlines are expressive due to alliteration:²²⁶² Там же. - С.168.⁶² Buck Bush, Man Behind. Malta's Seasick Summit. When the War of Stones Becomes the War of Guns. Alliteration is not inherent in Russian headlines, so there is no need to perform it in translation.

On the other hand, the expressiveness of Russian headlines is often achieved by puns and allusions: Слонята учатся летать. Весна - время рубить деревья? Кому продается наш гордый «Варяг»? (Владивосток). This stylistic device is lost in translation because of the readers' background.

A formulaic character of newspaper language is also seen in the vocabulary, syntactic structures, and headlines.

It is typical of an English newspaper to have more verbs, and of Russian newspaper, more nouns to express actions: Одна из крупнейших южнокорейских корпораций - Halla Business Group - приняла решение отказаться от участия в строительстве Владивостокского индустриального порта. (Владивосток) The article with this sentence was shortened in translation for Vladivostok News, with the corresponding sentence reading: An industrial port …received a serious blow recently when a major investor decided to pull out.^** The example is taken from the graduation paper by A.Medetsky, a translator in Vladivostok News.

Nominal sentences are also typical of Russian headlines, whereas English journalists prefer verbal headlines:²²⁶³ К р у п н о в В. Н. Курс перевода. Английский язык: общественно-политическая лексика - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1979. - С.48.⁶³ U.S. Sales of Vehicles Built in North America Slide 24%. (The Wall Street Journal) - Падение на 24% объема продаж американских автомобилей.

A distinctive feature of Russian newspaper is the abundance of informatively `empty' words, like в частности, дело, со стороны, etc. In translation, these words are reduced. The translated sentence should be made as simple and compressive syntactically as possible. The following example, cited by A. Shveitser, illustrates the idea. Source language sentence: Согласно таблице, составленной Организацией экономического сотрудничества и развития, Финляндия занимает 8-е место в мире по уровню жизни. The translator's version was According to a table drawn up by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, Finland ranks eighth in the world in its living standards. The editor, whose native language was English, compressed the sentence to A table drawn up by the OECD shows Finland as the world's eighth best-off nation.²²⁶⁴ Ш в е й ц е р А. Буквальный перевод и интерференция // Перевод и коммуникация. М., 1997. - С.28.⁶⁴

There is a standard for featuring numerals in newspaper articles and headlines. In the English text, whole numbers below 10 are spelled out, figures are used for 10 and above.²²⁶⁵ The A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s S t y l e b o o k a n d L i b e l M a n u a l / Ed. By N. Goldstein. - New York, 1993. -P.150.⁶⁵ In the Russian text we may find a figure in any case: в 5 км от берега - five kilometers off-shore. In headlines, however, numerals are not spelled-out: 3 Die in Ambulance Crash.

One special problem is translating English headlines. Some features of the headlines have already been mentioned. Another characteristics is that some articles may have several headlines of different levels: headline, lead and `catch words' in the text.

A headline summarizes and draws attention to the story. It is often elliptical: auxiliary verbs, articles and even the sentence subject may be reduced. This presents a particular difficulty in translation. Headlines are normally translated only after reading the whole article, so that the translator is able to restore the subject: Fury at City Bus Cowboys. The article tells us about Manchester's bus passengers coming out on the streets in protest against bus chaos. It is this thematic component that is missing in the headline. Hence the translation: Жители Манчестера возмущены работой городских автобусов, or Возмущение жителей Манчестера работой городских автобусов.

Most often verbs in headlines are in the so-called present historical tense: Salvador Rebels Take Battle Beneath Streets. If the event described in the headline was completed in the past, the verb is translated in the past form: Повстанцы Сальвадора начали войну под землей. In case the event is not yet finished, the verb is translated with the present form: Mutual Distrust Threatens Yugoslav Peace Accord. - Взаимное недоверие угрожает подписанию мирного соглашения в Югославии. (Угроза мирному соглашению в Югославии). Researchers mark that Russian newspaper headlines are not as informative as English ones, probably because of their nominal thematic character.²²⁶⁶ Ш в е й ц е р А. Д. Перевод и лингвистика. (Газетно-информационный и военно-публицистический перевод) - М.: Воениздат, 1973.; Л а з а р е в а Э. А. Заголовок в газете. - Свердловск: Изд-во Урал. Ун-та, 1989. - С.7⁶⁶

To express a future event, the infinitive can be used in English: Iraqi Minister to Visit Moscow. - Министр Ирака собирается отправиться с визитом в Москву. - Предстоящий визит в Москву иракского министра.

The lead is the first paragraph of the article. It both summerizes and begins to tell the story. The lead answers Who? When? Where? Why? What? How? Some years ago the demand was that the lead consist of one sentence only, which required its partitioning in translation. Now the lead may include two or three sentences.

“Catch words” are used in the English text as if they were small titles of paragraphs. But in fact their usage is purely psychological. They do not summarize the paragraph; out of the context, they are meaningless. They are simply expressive words taken out of context in order to attract the reader's attention and to make the reader believe that the paragraph is not too large to be read. Because of this, these `catchy' titles are not translated.

Chapter 4. RENDERING STYLISTIC DEVICES IN TRANSLATION

Tropes are ornamental lexical means of figurative language, or figures of speech. In the Russian linguistic tradition, they are the subject matter of stylistics, whereas English linguists consider them to be the subject of rhetoric. Tropes are mostly used in the literary style (prose, poetry and drama), but also journalistic style (newspaper, journalism, oratory, propaganda), in advertising and everyday conversation.

This chapter will discuss the following tropes: metaphors, similes, epithets, paraphrase, puns and allusions.

The crucial strategy of a translator in rendering all these types of trope is to make a similar impact upon the reader/listener of the target text as did a source text on its receptor.

§1. TRANSLATION OF METAPHORS AND SIMILES