Theory of translation (english and russian)

Translating metaphor with a simile, retaining the image. Books are mirrors. - Книги как зеркало. Translating a metaphor (simile) by simile plus sense (i.e. plus explanation of the sense). This transformation is used if there is risk that a simple transfer of metaphor will not be understood by most readers.

Converting metaphor to sense, that is explicatory translation: I guess I keep hoping that if we stay right where we are, she'll come back, and we can turn the clock back. (D. Steel) - Мне кажется, я все еще надеюсь, что если мы останемся здсь, она вернется и все будет как прежде. This procedure is justified only in case of a dead metaphor. In other cases, the expressiveness of the metaphor should be compensated in a nearby part of the text.

Deletion, or reduction. This transformation is employed only if the metaphor is redundant. A deletion of metaphor can be justified only on the ground that the metaphor's function is being fulfilled elsewhere in the text.

Using the same metaphor combined with sense. Calque translation of metaphor supported by explanation is recommended only if the translator lacks confidence in the metaphor's power and clarity.

§2. TRANSLATION OF EPITHETS

Today's imaginative literature is characterized by the great role of epithet as an ornamental element able to express the author's attitude to the character, idea and overall narration.²²⁷⁰ Б о б ы л е в а Л. К. Очерки по языку английского романа XIX века: Лингвостилистический анализ. - Владивосток: Изд-во ДВГУ, 1984. - С.34.⁷⁰ To convey the author's intent, the translator must be very careful in selecting words with the same denotative and connotative meanings.

There are some specific problems of translating the epithet. One of them is enantiosemy, or using a word in its paradoxical meaning when the word is capable of carrying two opposite significations. Usually the enantisemic epithets reveal a negative attitude of the speaker.²²⁷¹ Д а в ы д о в М. В. Звуковые парадоксы английского языка и их функциональная специфика. - М.: Изд-во МГУ, 1984. - С. 64; М и н а е в а Л. В. Слово в языке и речи. - М.: Высшая школа, 1986. - С.128.⁷¹ He is a fine fellow as ever I saw. He simpers and smirks and makes love to us all. I am prodigiously proud of him. I defy even Sir William Lucas himself to produce a more valuable son-in-law. (J. Austen) The words simpers and smirks show an ironic attitude of the speaker to the character. The epithets valuable and prodigiously proud are understood in the opposite sense. This irony must not escape from a target text reader.

Enantiosemy is characteristic of both English and Russian literature. For example, Откуда, умная, бредешь ты голова? - addressing an ass. In translation the paradoxical meaning can be shown with the help of particles, word order, etc.: My good fellow! - Любезный ты мой! A nice place to live away from. - Ну и местечко! A pretty story! - Хорошенькая же история!

Another problem is the transferred qualifier, or an epithet syntactically joined to a word to which it does not belong logically.²²⁷² К о м и с с а р о в В. Н., К о р а л о в а А. Л. Практикум по переводу с английского языка на русский. - М.: Высшая школа, 1990. - С. 112.⁷² He ran a tired hand through his hair. (D. Steel) - Устало он провел рукой по волосам. The word tired logically is linked with he, syntactically with hand. In translation the logic disagreement is normally corrected, since the structures of this type are not typical of modern Russian, though it is interesting to note that in the 19^th century they were used in Russian fiction: Здесь кажут франты записные

Свое нахальство, свой жилет

И невнимательный лорнет.

(А.Пушкин. Евгений Онегин)

In English transferred epithets are used not only in poetry and prose, but also in journalism and in everyday conversation.

Translation of the transferred epithet often requires word order change: a British breakfast of depressing kidney and fish - наводящий тоску завтрак из почек и рыбы; or extension: He raised a supercilious eyebrow. - Он поднял бровь, и лицо его приняло высокомерное выражение.²²⁷³ Л е в и ц к а я Т. Р., Ф и т е р м а н А. М. Указ. соч. - С. 124.⁷³ Stock epithets are calqued: her sapphire glance - ее сапфирный взгляд; dumb love - немая любовью

Inverted epithet is a word syntactically functioning as a headword, but semantically serving as a modifier to a dependent noun: a darling of a girl, a bear of a man. This epithet is very expressive and should be rendered in Russian by an appropriate expressive means: прелестнейшая девчушка; не человек, а медведь.

Gradation of epithets, that is a sequence of synonymous epithets, is constructed on a different basis in English and in Russian. In English, gradation is based on rhythmical sequence; in Russian, this device is logic-centered: the word, most important logically, is positioned in the end of the sequence. This inevitably causes word order change in translation: Privacy is viewed as a requirement which all humans would find equally necessary, desirable, and satisfying. - Частная жизнь - это требование, которое абсолютно все люди считают положительным, необходимым и желательным.

§3. TRANSLATION OF PERIPHRASE

Periphrase, or periphrasis, is circumlocution, or extended rewording of an object through one of its aspects: Green continent = Australia, pub-crawler = drunkard; канцелярская крыса = чиновник, цветы жизни = дети. The term is derived from the Greek periphrasis, `roundabout expression'. It should not be confused with `paraphrase', or a restatement of a text or passage in another form or other words in order to clarify the meaning. The Russian equivalent to periphrase is перифраз(а), and `paraphrase' is equivalent to `парафраз' or `перефразировка'.

The periphrase carries out two main functions in the text - cognitive and expressive. The cognitive function implies that the periphrase deepens our knowledge of the phenomenon described: three R's = reading, writing and 'rithmetic, forming the base of children's education; Madison Avenue = advertising, as this New York street is famous as the center of the advertising industry. The expressive function of periphrase allows authors to use it as a stylistic device: Меж тем как сельские циклопы (= кузнецы) перед медлительным огнем российским лечат молотком изделье легкое Европы (= кареты), благословляя колеи и рвы отеческой земли …(А.Пушкин) By using periphrase, Pushkin shows us his humorous attitude towards Russian country life.

To translate a periphrase, it is important to understand both denotative and connotative meanings. The translator must realize the degree to which the receptor is aware of the meaning and associations connected with the periphrase. Dictionaries and reference-books can be helpful, especially dictionaries of language and culture.¹¹ Of special use might be dictionaries that give cultural notes, such as: Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture - Longman, 1993; Американа: Англо-русский лингвострановедческий словарь / Под ред. Г.В.Чернова - Полиграмма, 1996.

Some periphrases have analogue equivalents in the second language: канцелярская крыса - desk drudge, pencil pusher, red-tapist; черный ящик - 'black box', human mind. Others are transliterated: John Bull - Джон Буль; or most commonly, calqued and explained: the Last Frontier - последняя граница, прозвище штата Аляска; the Aloha State - гостеприимный штат, прозвище штата Гавайи; the Evergreen State - вечнозеленый штат, прозвище штата Вашингтон.

However, calque translation may cause false associations with the receptor if a similar designation exists in his/her culture: the three sisters for a Russian receptor is associated with A. Chekhov's play, whereas in English the phrase means `the fatal sisters, the Fates' (from Greek mythology), which corresponds to Russian 'мойры, богини судьбы'.²² Новый большой англо-русский словарь / Под ред. Ю.Д.Апресяна - Т.3 - М.: Русский язык, 1994. - С.258

§4. TRANSLATION OF PUNS

A pun is a play on words to produce a humorous effect.

There are several ways to create a pun:

Play on a word polysemy: the direct meaning is contrasted to a transferred meaning of the word:

“Owl,” said Pooh solemnly, “you made a mistake. Somebody did want it [the tail].”

“Who?”

“Eeyore. My dear friend Eeyore. He was fond of it.”

“Fond of it?”

“Attached to it,” said Winnie sadly. (A. Milne)

The following two meanings of the word form `to be attached' are played upon: a) to be connected; b) to be fond of. The same principle of word playing is possible in Russian, as the participle `привязан' has the same two meanings:

Сова, - сказал Пух торжественно, - он [хвост] кому-то очень нужен.

Кому?

Иа, моему дорогому другу Иа-Иа. Он … он очень любил его.

Любил его?

Был привязан к нему, - грустно сказал Винни-Пух. (Пер. Т.Ворогушин, Л.Лисицкая)

Play on direct and figurative meaning of a phraseological unit:

Once upon a time, a very long time ago now, Winnie-the-Pooh lived in a forest all by himself under the name of Sanders.

“What does `under the name' mean?” asked Christopher Robin.

“It means he had the name over the door in gold letters, and lived under it.”

The figurative meaning of the phrase `to live under the name' is `to live with a false name'. This meaning is contrasted with the direct one explained in the extract, which is derived from the meanings of its components. The Russian correspondence of the phrase admits the similar play:

Винни-Пух жил в лесу один одинешенек, под именем Сандерс.

- Что значит «жил под именем»? - немедленно спросил Кристофер Робин.

- Это значит, что на дощечке над дверьюбыло золотыми буквами написано «Мистер Сандер», а он под ней жил.

Play on homonymy is most difficult for translation. Generally, contextual substitution is employed like this:

“If she [governess] couldn't remember my name, she'd call me `Miss' as the servants do.”

“Well, if she said `Miss' and didn't say anything more,” the Gnat remarked, “of course you'd miss your lessons. That's a joke.” (L.Carroll)

The form `Miss' is homonymous. As a verb, it has the meaning `to fail to attend or perform, to leave out or omit' (to miss a class, a day of work). As a noun, it denotes a title of courtesy. The clash of the two meanings gives a humorous ring to the extract. The translator into Russian had to use a contextual substitution to preserve a pun:

Это мне не поможет, - возразила Алиса, - даже если она забудет мое имя, она всегда может сказать: «Послушайте, милочка.»

Но ведь ты же не Милочка, - перебил ее комар. - Ты и не будешь слушать. Хорошенькая вышла шутка, правда?

(Пер. Демуровой)

As we see, in the translation, a common and a proper name are opposed. The common name performs a phatic function that is also observed in the English sentence.

Play on paronymy. Paronyms are assonant words with differing meanings. Another example from Through the Looking-Glass by L. Carroll:

“I beg your pardon,” said Alice very humbly, “you had got to the fifth bend, I think?”

“I had not!” cried the Mouse sharply.

“A knot?” said Alice, always ready to make herself useful, and looking anxiously about her. “Oh, do let me help to undo it!”

Alice's misinterpretation of the negative particle not, pronounced by the Mouse, is manifested by the collocation to undo a knot. It is almost next to impossible to find a Russian correspondence in the paronymous form for this couple of words not-knot. Translator Demurova based the pun on homonymy:

Нет, почему же, - ответила Алиса с недоумением. Вы дошли до пятого завитка, не так ли?

Глупости! - рассердилась мышь. - Как я от них устала! Этого просто не вынести!

А что нужно вынести? - спросила Алиса. - Разрешите, я помогу!

Contextual substitution is accompanied by the change of image.

Play on the word sound similarity: contamination. If two words have similar sounds or sound clusters, the common sounds are joined and a new word comes into life. This occurs according to the formula: (a-b) + (b-c) = a-b-c. For example, bread-and-butter + butterfly = bread-and-butterfly; баобаб + бабочка = баобабочка. A translator uses the same procedure of contaminating assonant words and coins a new “nonsense” (at first glance) word. Similarly, we see a hybrid word in the extract from Winnie-the Pooh by A. Milne:

“Bother! Said Pooh… “What's that bit of paper doing?”

He took it out and looked at it. “It's a missage,” he said to himself, “that's what it is.”

The contaminated word missage is coined by Winnie-the-Pooh from the noun message and the verb to miss. Boris Zakhoder, when translating the story, substituted the verb by the one that is assonant to the noun послание --спасти. What has come of it is this:

Он вытащил бумажку и посмотрел на нее.

- Это Спаслание, - сказал он, - вот что это такое.

This pun principle may involve not only words, but also phrases. Mock Turtle, a character from Alice in Wonderland by L. Carroll, reminisces about his school teacher: We called him Tortoise because he taught us. Demurova makes a play with the noun, on the one hand, and noun and preposition, on the other: Учителем у нас был старик Черепаха. Мы звали его Спрутом, … потому что он всегда ходил с прутиком.

Play on associative meanings. By “corrupting” a word, the author aims at the receptor's background associations. This metalingual function of the text must be retained in translation. That is why the translator looks for an assonant word, bringing about similar associations on the part of the translation receptor: Reeling and Writhing studied at sea school in Alice in Wonderland is definitely associated with Reading and Writing, difficult subjects of an elementary school. The translators substituted the nouns with verbs according to the context: сначала мы, как полагается, чихали и пищали (associated with читали и писали) (пер. Демуровой); учились чесать и питать (пер. В.Набокова).

In search for a proper means of compensation or substitution, translators are apt to be rather free: Carroll says that at school children studied Mystery, Ancient and Modern (associated with History, Ancient and Modern), Seaography (Geography), Drawling (Drawing). Here the translators seem to be competing with each other as for the number of school subjects and their expressiveness: Demurova's version of translation: У нас было много всяких предметов: грязнописание, триконометрия, анатомия и физиология. The list of subjects in Orel's translation is increased: Еще была Болтаника и Уродоведение; …Палкебра и Драконометрия; Водная Речь; Хроматика, Морквология, Свинтаксис; Физия и Хихика. And V. Nabokov compensated the nouns by saying that they studied the following subjects: Лукомория, древняя и новая; арфография (это мы учились на арфе играть)… Затем делали мы гимнастику. Самое трудное было - язвительное наклонение.

So the crucial principle of a pun translator is receptor-centered translation, taking into account the equivalent effect upon the receptor.

§5. TRANSLATION OF ALLUSIONS AND QUOTATIONS

Allusions and quotations play a special role in the English culture. No other language in the world has such a great number of quotation dictionaries as English. Allusions and quotations are widely used not in fiction only, but in everyday speech of common people.²²⁷⁴ Г ю б б е н е т И. В. Основы филологической интерпретации литературно-художественного текста. - М.: Изд-во МГУ, 1991. - С.16.⁷⁴ To illustrate their own thoughts, people use allusions and quotations and they often play upon them. This makes a translator's work more difficult - the quotations are generally altered, turned into allusions, and often hardly recognized by a representative of another culture. Many quotations and allusions are derived from Shakespeare, the Bible, classical literature, poetry. For a translated text to be of good quality, the translator and a source text receptor must share background knowledge. No less important is to convey the allusion or quotation to the receptor of the target text.

To translate a quotation or allusion, it is possible to use commentaries, to do explicatory translation: Oh, Mamma, you're too kind to me! I don't deserve it/ It's like heaping coals of fire on my head after the way I've gone on. (A.Cronin) - О мама, ты слишком добра ко мне! Я этого не заслужил. Ведь я так себя плохо вел. Твоя доброта жжет мне совесть, как раскаленные уголья. (Пер. А. Кунина) The source of this allusion is the Bible. The dictionary of idioms suggests the following translation, close to the Russian Bible: `отплатить добром за зло'. However, the context provided another translated version.

If necessary, the translator mentions the allusion or quotation source: Как говорится в Библии….

It should be kept in mind that biblical allusions and quotations are far less known in Russian culture than in English. Therefore, it is recommended that the translator use a Russian analogue to a biblical quotation rather than a direct quotation, which might be absolutely unfamiliar to a Russian reader, as it occurred with the following extract from Galsworthy: From Condaford the hot airs of election time had cleared away and the succeeding atmosphere was crystallized in the General's saying:

“Well, those fellows got their deserts.”

“Doesn't it make you tremble, Dad, to think what these fellows desert will be if they don't succeed in putting it over now?”

The General smiled.

“Sufficient into the day, Dinny.”

To render the final quotation, a translator used the direct quotation from the Russian Bible, “Довлеет дневи злоба его, Динни”, which is not comprehensible to a common reader. It would be better to substitute the quotation with its proverbial analogue: Всему свое время.

There is one more translation trap. When a source text contains a quotation from the target language, it is essential to be very careful and accurate in translation, consulting dictionaries of quotations, catch phrases, and idioms. For example, in the Russian text, which is to be translated into English, a translator comes across the phrase “быть или не быть”. It is unacceptable to use one's own translation, like “Shall I be or shall I not be?”, since it is the world famous question of Hamlet “To be or not to be…”

Chapter 5. TRANSLATION NORMS AND QUALITY CONTROL OF A TRANSLATION

§1. NORMS OF TRANSLATION

The notion of `norms' in reference to translation is considered to have been first introduced by the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury in the late 1970s.²²⁷⁵ R o u t l e d g e E n c y c l o p e d i a… - P.163.⁷⁵ This term refers to regularities of translation behavior within a specific sociocultural situation.²²⁷⁶ T o u r y G. The Nature and Role of Norms in Literary Translation // Literature and Translation: New Perspectives in Literary Studies / Ed. by J. Holmes, J. Lambert and R. Van den Broek. - Leuven: Acco, 1978. - P.83-100; T o u r y G. In Search of a Theory of Translation. - Tel Aviv: Porter Institute, 1980. ⁷⁶

Before the 1970s, translations were evaluated mostly in their comparison with the source text. Toury's works have shifted attention away from the relationship between individual source and target texts and towards the relationship which exists among the target texts themselves in the context of literary production.

Toury's concept consists of three levels of speaking about a text: competence, norms and performance. Competence is the level of description which allows theorists to list the inventory of options that are available to translators in a given context, that is, a description of what means a translator can use to achieve a goal. To make a good end-text, a translator must be competent in the language reserves s/he can select from. Performance concerns the subset of options the translator actually selects in translation, i. e., what is in fact employed by a translator and how it is employed. Norms are options that translators in a given socio-historical context select on a regular basis, that is, what is typical to use in a particular context.

A number of scholars have attempted to explore some of the theoretical aspects of the notion of norms. Many articles on translation norms have been published in Target, the international journal edited by Toury and published since 1989 by John Benjamins.

In their investigation, the theorists came to distinguish between norms and conventions. Norms are binding, and obligatory, whereas conventions only express preferences.

Norms are divided into constitutive and regulatory. Constitutive norms concern what is or is not accepted as translation. For example, poetry translation does not admit word-for-word translation. Regulatory norms concern what kind of equivalence a translator opts for or achieves. For instance, in poetry translation the functional level of equivalence is obligatory, but the lexical and grammatical similarity of the source and target texts is hardly achieved at all.

Further, Chesterman grouped the norms into professional and expectancy norms.²²⁷⁷ C h e s t e r m a n A. From 'Is' to 'Ought': Laws, Norms and Strategies in Translation Studies // Target, 1993. - 5 (1) - P.1-20.⁷⁷ Professional norms emerge from competent professional behavior and govern the accepted methods and strategies of the translation process. They are sub-divided into three major types:

Accountability norms, which involve ethics and call for professional standards of integrity and thoroughness;

Communication norms, which are social and emphasize the role of the translator as a communication expert;

Relation norms, which are linguistic and require the translator to establish and maintain an appropriate relation between source and target texts.

Expectancy norms are established by the translation receivers' expectations of what a translation should be like. In attempting to conform to the expectancy norms operating in a given community, a translator will simultaneously be conforming to the professional norms of that community.

V. Komissarov described translation norms from a linguistic point of view.²²⁷⁸ К о м и с с а р о в В. Н. Теория перевода. - С.227-238.⁷⁸ He classified the norms into translation equivalence norms, genre and style norms, language norms, pragmatic norms, and conventional norms.

Translation equivalence norms require as nearly as possible a common sense of the source and target text. When the sense in the target text is transgressed, equivalence norms are completely broken, and the translation is considered unsatisfactory. If a translation is made at a low level of equivalence, the norms are relatively broken, and the translation is regarded as acceptable.

Genre and style norms presuppose the correct selection of a text's predominant function and the preservation of stylistic peculiarities in translation. For example, when translating a scientific or technical text, a translator keeps in mind that the informative, but not expressive function, must prevail, which makes him reduce the expressiveness of the Russian science text as compared with its English original.

Language norms mean the correct usage of language in speech (errorless combinability, agreement of words, selection of words, etc.) It is common knowledge that the norms of the source and target language can be different, and a fledging translator, `hypnotized' by the source language norms, sometimes violates the natural flow of the target language text. For example, one text about cowboys' life included the following sentence: …the exciting chases on horseback with guns blazing, the handsome guitar-strumming cowboys around bonfires and the lovely saloon ladies all made exciting viewing. A student translator did not think much about the grammar links and meanings of some words and his translation was *захватывающие погони на лошадях со стреляющими пистолетами, красивые ковбои, играющие на гитарах, сидя у костра, милые леди салонов - все это приводило в восхищение. This translation is, no doubt, far from exciting.

Pragmatic norms require that a translator realize, first and foremost, the pragmatic purpose of the text; the author's intent must be very close to the communicative effect on the translation receptor. Sometimes the fulfillment of the pragmatic aim may transgress other translation norms, a language norm in particular. A short by John Lennon and its translation by the graduates of the English department (FESU) Maria Boiko and Marianna Karp can illustrate the point. Lennon's short continues a series of literary parodies on absurd literature, so it is based on agrammatical forms, puns, and nuisance language coinages, which, nevertheless, produce a definite impact on the reader. How this author's intent is reflected in translation can be seen in comparing the source and the target texts:

Nicely Nicely Clive To Clive Barrow it was just an ordinary day nothing unusual or starnge about it, everything quite navel, nothing outstanley, just another day but to Roger it was somthing special, a day amongst days … a red lettuce day … because Roger was getting married and as he dressed that morning he thought about the gay batchelor soups he'd had with all his pals. And Clive said nothing. To Roger everything was different, wasn't this the day his Mother had told him about, in his best suit and all that, grimming and shakeing hands, people tying boots and ricebudda on his car. To have and to harm … till death duty part … he knew it all off by hertz. Clive Barrow seemed oblivious. Roger could visualise Anne in her flowing weddy drag, being wheeled up the aisle, smiling a blessing.He had butterflied in his stomarce as he fastened his bough tie and brushed his hairs. “I hope I'm doing the right thing” he thought looking in the mirror, “Am I good enough for her?” Roger need not have worried because he was “Should I have flowers all round the spokes” said Anne polishing her foot rest. “Or should I keep it syble?” she continued looking down on her grain haired Mother. “Does it really matter?” repaid her Mother wearily wiping her sign. “He won't be looking at your spokes anyway.” Anne smiled the smile of someone who's seen a few laughs. Then luckily Annes father came home from sea and cancelled the husband.	Очень очень Клайв Для Клайва Бэрроу это был всего лишь день как день ничего страмного или нериличного так ничего себе средненький денек ничего из наряда вон выходящево просто еще один день но для Роджера это было что-то особенное день из дней … крысный день календаря… потому что это был день его свадьбы и одеваясь утром он думал о веселых холостяцких ужинах съеденных со своими друзьями… А Клайв не сказал ничего. Для Роджера все было по-другому; ни об этом ли дне твердила ему Матушка - в лучшем костюме и все такое, скаля зубы и пожимая руки, люди зашныривают ботинки и засыпают на ходу рисом. Губить и обижать… пока смерть не размочит нас… он знал все это на зубок. А Клайву Бэрроу, казалось, и дела не было. Роджер воображал, как Анна расточая блаженные улыбки катится к нему по проходу в своем праздно разуквашенном свадебном кресле. Когда он завязал галстук бабушкой и рсчесал свои волосинки у него засосало под вилочкой. «Надеюсь, я поступаю правильно», помыслил он, зря в зеркало. «Достоин ли я ее?» зря беспокоился Роджер, ибо он был «стоит ли мне украшать спицы цветами» сказала Анна, полировавшая подставочку для ног «или обставить все как съесть.» продолжала она, глядя сверху вниз на свою сеновласую Матушку. «А какая в сущности разница?» отплатила ей Матушка, устало выпирая нос. «Все равно он и смотреть не станет на твои спицы» Анна улыбнулась улубкой человека, не мало порыдавшего на своем веку. Потом, к счастью, навернулся домой с морей отец Анны и отменил мужа.

Сonventional norms are the translation requirements in a certain historical context. The classicist norms of translation required an `ideal' translation with embellishments and decorations. In the period of sentimentalism, a thread of the translator's life experience as well as his feelings was reflected in translation. These conventions led to free translations. The convention norms to date regard the translation as a substitute of the original text, which requires the maximal similarity of the source and target texts.

§2. QUALITY CONTROL OF THE TRANSLATION.

Quality control of the translation must be done by the translator, first and foremost, and can be done by an editor, either a hired editor or the translator's colleague.

Giving advice to translators, a experienced British professional translator Geoffrey Samuelsson-Brown suggests the following steps for quality control:²²⁷⁹ S a m u e l s s o n - B r o w n G. Op. cit. - P.52- 64.⁷⁹

Resolve any queries that you may have with a subject expert or the client. It is not infrequent that the quality of the translation is governed by the quality of the source text.

Check to ensure that the entire text has been translated - you could easily have been interrupted for a number of reasons and missed some part of the text.

Check all figures and dates in the text and in tables.

Carry out a spell check using your word processor program and grammar check if available.

In every case proofread your translation. If possible, set your translation aside for as long as possible when you have completed the first draft. Read your text as an original text and not as a translation.

Pass the translation to a colleague for checking in order to get a more objective view of the translation.

Discuss any corrections with the proof-reader, where required. Incorporate the corrections and changes where these are relevant. Repeat the spell check to ensure that the corrections and changes do not contain typing errors.

In evaluating a translation, proof-readers usually mark four types of mistake: distortions, inaccuracies, stylistic drawbacks, and solecisms.

Distortion is a blunder marring the sense of the original by describing another situation and, thus, misinforming a receptor. Distortions generally occur because of the translator's misunderstanding of the text, poor language knowledge, and insufficient background awareness. The often repeated example of machine translation of the biblical text can illustrate the point: The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak translated as Спирт хорош, а мясо протухло.

Inaccuracy occurs when a translator mistranslates some detail of the text. Inaccuracies result from misunderstanding a word or a structure. For example, the time of the situation is incorrectly conveyed in the translation of the sentence: Говорят, эта церковь была построена в 14 веке. - *This church is said to be built in the 14^th century. The wrong form of the infinitive is the cause of the inaccuracy. Or another example, cited by Nora Gal: the source text tell of an old woman who wants to buy a dog and explains her desire this way: I want something human. - Хочу, чтоб рядом было что-то человеческое. This translation sounds somewhat unnatural in Russian; it would be much better Хочу, чтобы рядом была живая душа.²²⁸⁰ Г а л ь Н. Слово живое и мертвое: из опыта переводчика и редактора. - М.: Книга, 1975. - С.152.⁸⁰

Stylistic drawback is a deviation from target language stylistic and semantic norms. Often, this fallacy is due to underestimating translation transformations: e.g., It's high noon. The sun beats down on the dusty, deserted main street of Dodge City. - * Полдень. Солнце бьет по пыльной пустой улице Додж-Сити. *Солнце палит на безлюдную улицу города Додж-Сити. The translation would be more natural if the student translators used partitioning of the sentence and found another equivalent to the verb: Город Додж-Сити. Главная улица пустынна. Стоящее в зените солнце жжет нещадно.

Solecism is a syntactical error resulting from breaking structural norms of the target language because of the translator's illiteracy or because of source language interference. Another citation from Nora Gal's experience: И никто не увидит нас вернувшимися обратно. Evidently, the translator meant Никто нас больше не увидит. (Мы не вернемся обратно.)

If a translated text is meant to be published, the translator is sure to deal with an editor, the central figure in the publishing industry. Some experienced translators become eventually editors of publishing companies (Nora Gal, Ivan Kashkin²²⁸¹ К а ш к и н И. Для читателя-современника: Статьи и исследования. - М.: Сов. Писатель, 1968.⁸¹ and others).

Generally, the editor's tasks are as follows:

arranging creative and publishing work;

checking the translation;

consulting the translator;

in some countries, the editor's tasks include recommending titles (authors and books), appealing to them, for publishing.

The editor is a conductor of the publishing house strategies. S/he oversees that the translated text meet all the proper norms and requirements. One of the exemplary editors of the time was Alexandre Blok who required that translators show the author's individual style in the natural flow of the target discourse.²²⁸² П о п о в и ч А. Проблемы художественного перевода. - М.: Высшая школа, 1990. - С.71.⁸²

To perform his/her role successfully, the editor must be very competent, even more experienced than a translator. It is desirable that the editor know two languages (unfortunately, sometimes publishing companies have only monolingual editors, editing translations haphazardly). Normally, editors check translations into their native tongue, in which stylistic, semantic and syntactic resources they are completely proficient.

An intelligent, patient and benevolent editor is a real help and mentor to a translator. The editor has the right to insist on emending the text, but it is the translator who is responsible for the target text, not the editor. The translator, after all, comes to a consensus with the editor, or rejects his comment. It is as illegal for a translator to emendate by him/herself the text, already checked by the editor, as for an editor to alter the target text without the translator's consent.

It is essential that a translator understand proofreading (editing) marks, which follow national standards and are marked both in text and in margin. The most important of them are as follows:

leave unchanged (both in English and Russian): _ _ _ _ _ under characters to remain unchanged;

refer to translator if anything is of doubtful accuracy: encircled question mark or word;

insertion: in English, and in Russian; etc.^** See American standard proofreaders' marks in: The Associated Stylebook and Libel Manual. - New York, 1993 (and other editions); Russian proofreaders' marks can be found in : Словарь-справочник автора. - М.: Книга, 1979.

Chapter 6. TRANSLATION ETIQUETTE

§1. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS, ETIQUETTE, AND PROTOCOL

The concepts of `ethics' and `etiquette' are close but different. The word `ethics' has two meanings: 1) philosophical: the study of the general nature of morals and of specific moral choices to be made by the individual in his relationship with others; 2) the rules or standards governing the conduct of the members of a profession.<sup>***</sup> The American Heritage Dictionary. - Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1982. - P.467<sup>*</sup> The term `etiquette' implies the practices and forms prescribed by social convention or by authority.^**** Ibid.^** Thus, the former term is descriptive, while the latter is prescriptive. Partly assonant, the words are of different origins: ethics is derived from the Greek зthikз `habit, character'; etiquette is of French origin, meaning `label' (it was used for a card bearing formal instructions on how to behave at court).

The word `etiquette' is very close to the term protocol, meaning the forms of ceremony observed by diplomats, heads of state and other high-ranking officials.

While ethics is a translator's strategy, etiquette is his/her tactics, and protocol is the way the tactics are employed.

No need to say that a translator should be fully aware of the basics of international protocol. On the one hand, it will help him to behave correctly in any situation. On the other, a translator is often vested with the protocol function because his/her boss supposes that s/he should know not only of a foreign language, but also customs and traditions of the target culture. So a translator's task is not only to provide communication but also to arrange negotiations and other ceremonies.²²⁸³ Ч у ж а к и н А., П а л а ж ч е н к о П. Мир перевода, или Вечный поиск взаимопонимания. - М.: Валент, 1997. - С.124-125.⁸³

§2. CODE OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT

Many professional bodies have a code of professional conduct, like the Institute of Linguistics in the United Kingdom.²²⁸⁴ S a m u e l s s o n - B r o w n G. Op. cit. - P.107..⁸⁴ The German Federation of Translators developed a similar code of professional honor.

One of the first principles of translators' behavior is objectivity and impartiality. A translator, or rather an interpreter, is a mediator of communication but not its active participant. He cannot take part in the discussion he translates. A translator is generally expected not to side with either party. If a speaker's arguments seem weak to him, he must translate them as convincingly (or not) as does the speaker. The interpreter cannot correct the speaker even if he knows that the latter is evidently mistaken. In order to “wash his hands” of the wrong statement, the interpreter can stress that it is the speaker's point of view: Как говорит оратор… Neither vocal, nor facial expression should betray the interpreter's thoughts and feelings. Generally speaking, interpreting involves a high level of neutrality and detachment.

The interpreter's speech must be clear and distinct. He must not mumble and stumble. No matter what and how a speaker might be talking, the interpreter must be logical and grammatically correct. A sentence begun must be completed. There is a stereotype that well-respected participants speak according to the standard norms. Thus mistakes in translating will inevitably be attributed to the interpreter and not to the speaker.

It is recommended that the interpreter learn beforehand the names and positions of the communicators to avoid further troubles.

The interpreter is not responsible for the content of what he is translating. He cannot translate what was not said (though in informal situations, the interpreter may deviate slightly from this rule and, taking into account the difference in cultures, makes necessary comments.) Awareness of non-verbal communication will be of great help to the interpreter in any situation,²²⁸⁵ П и з А. Язык телодвижений: Как читать мысли других людей по их жестам. - Нижний Новгород: Ай-Кью, 1992.⁸⁵ though he is not obliged to translate gestures.

An interpreter must keep information from the talks confidential. When working at several negotiations concerning the same problem, the translator cannot make the participants understand that he is aware of some information on the problem.

An interpreter normally speaks in the first person singular; the third person deixis is employed when it is necessary to introduce the speaker, when the communicator speaks about the interpreter, or in informal situations with several participants. It is not recommended using in Russian the pronoun он / она - it is better to name a person (either in full name or with the courtesy title `господин / госпожа'.

The place of an interpreter depends on the type of ceremony. It is crucial that the interpreter hear and be heard well. In translating informal talks, the interpreter usually stands between the communicants, to the left of his chief. When translating officials, the interpreter is to the left and behind the official. At the conference, the interpreter can be at the podium, in the presidium, at a microphone. An interpreter can check with the speaker if he did not hear or understand something properly. But, of course, echoing questions should not be frequent, especially in translating official talks.

It is admissible, though not desirable, to interrupt very long utterances of a speaker. It is better to make an agreement with the speaker beforehand about the length of utterances s/he is going to speak. An interpreter should always have paper and pencil with him, ready to take notes.

An interpreter must be very punctual. He must be observant of the time and arrive on time. Negotiations cannot start without him. It is even desirable that the interpreter come a little earlier than appointed, because the participants may decide at the last moment to start the discussion earlier, or the interpreter's help may be needed for discussing some problems before the talks.

An interpreter must work with modesty and dignity. He must avoid both overfamiliarity (even if he is on friendly terms with the negotiation participants) and servility towards the communicators. He must be self-assured: he knows that the worst translation is better than absence of one²²⁸⁶ В о е в о д и н а Т. В. Устный перевод в коммуникативном аспекте и его соотношение с другими видами перевода // Тетради переводчика. - Вып.20. - М.: Высшая школа, 1983. - С. 68.⁸⁶ (the theory is disputable, however). He must not let the talks participants correct him and he should do everything to make them believe in his professional competence.

His manners must be reserved and official, the clothes neat and not garish.

§3. PROTOCOL CEREMONIES

Diplomatic protocol ceremonies are complicated and sophisticated.²²⁸⁷ М о л о ч к о в Ф. Дипломатический церемониал и протокол. - М., 1977.⁸⁷ Protocol ceremonies in business are simple, but they are worth knowing.²²⁸⁸ Ч у ж а к и н А., П а л а ж ч е н к о П. Указ. соч. - С.123-148; Ч у ж а к и н А. Мир перевода-2: Practicum. - М.: Валент, 1997. - С.24-40.

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Negotiations and signing a contract. When preparing for the event on this occasion, it is necessary to:

write a scenario of signing a contract, with a full list of the invitees (VIPs, colleagues, city administration, mass media, etc.);

inform the invitees about the date and time in advance, and the day before signing to phone the most important people again;

prepare a room for signing and all the accessories (table, chairs, folders, pens; podium for short speeches, etc.). Think of the number of invitees the room is able to accommodate;

design a menu with light refreshments;

prepare a press-release in English and Russian beforehand;

invite a photographer.

It is desirable to get the business cards of all participants of the negotiations: they help the interpreter to translate correctly their names, positions, and companies.

Reception and presentation. All the receptions are either sit-down or stand-up. The most honorable gala receptions are luncheons (lunch) and dinners, that is, sit-downs. Stand-ups - coup de champagne, vin d'honneur, cocktail party, dinner-buffet (including hot meat and hot fish), cold dishes table - have also become very popular of late.

The preparation of the reception includes:

choosing the type and place of the reception;

listing invitees, with their addresses and means of communication (mail, fax, phone);

writing a scenario of the reception;

sending timely invitations;

drawing up a seating plan;

ordering a menu;

controlling the guest service;

preparing preliminary translations of toasts and speeches. In a foreign party, unlike in a Russian one, the only toast is proposed at the end of the ceremony. The following clichйs can be handy: Let me propose a toast to the health of… - Позвольте мне произнести тост за здоровье… I'd like to raise a toast to… - Я бы хотел поднять бокал за … Allow me to drink to… - Позвольте мне выпить за…Cheers! - На здоровье! Bottoms up! - До дна! На посошок! - One for the road!

For stand-up receptions, hosts and guests are usually dressed in business attire; for sit-downs, women can be dressed up and men can wear a classical business suit, unless invited to a black tie event, which means very formal dress, i.e. tuxedo.

During the reception the interpreter's job is to translate - he will have his meals only during pauses, if any, between speeches.

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