Theory of translation (english and russian)
General issues, history, grammar (finite verb forms, causative constructions etc.), semantic (translating realia and terms) and pragmatic (functional styles, etc) problems of translation. Russian-English and Russian-English-Chinese Transliteration Chart.
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In interrogative sentences, by using some the speaker anticipates an affirmative answer. When s/he uses any, the expected answer is likely to be negative. For example, Didn't you publish some poems in this volume? - Разве неправда, что вы опубликовали несколько стихотворений в этом томике? Didn't you publish any poetry in this book? - Правда, что вы не опубликовали никаких стихов в этом сборнике?
In the interrogative sentence, the partitive any can presuppose the meaning of even the smallest amount or number of something: Is there any of that lemon cake left? In Russian, this partitive meaning can be stressed by the particle хоть: Остался хоть какой-нибудь кусочек лимонного торта?
Another meaning of any - that of `not important' which corresponds to the Russian любой: You can come any day you like. - Можешь прийти в любой день, когда захочешь.
The partitive pronoun some can be substituted in Russian by the word одни if the sentence implies enumeration: Some blame it on television, or the weather, or bad films, or slimmer purses. - Одни винят в этом телевидение, другие - плохую погоду, третьи - плохие фильмы, четвертые - отощавшие кошельки. In this case, a translator must supply a sentence subject to all parallel objects.
§7. TRANSLATING DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
The difference between the English this/these - that/those can be traced in four aspects which should be known to a translator:
distance
direction
time
connotation
This indicates something within the speaker's reach; that, out of speaker's reach, is separated from him by space. This difference is not as evident in Russian: (on the phone) Hello, this is Clair. Who is that speaking? Is that Mike? - Алло, Клер слушает. Кто это? Это Майк?
When English-speaking people refer to this country, they mean their own country. In translation it should be substituted by the proper name: almost 53 years later, the King's abdication has come to be widely seen as an inevitable event. At the time, it was a shock to many in this country and the Commonwealth. - Спустя почти 53 года всем стало очевидно, что отречения короля было неизбежно, а в то время многих в Англии и в Содружестве это приводило в ужас.
This and that also indicate different directions of motion. Despite the space between the speaker and a person, the approaching person will be called this man. If a person is going away, he is referred to as that man. Compare the usage of the pronouns in the following sport commentator's remark, which became a joke: Ladies and gentlemen, this is Stirling Moss, that was. Construed as the juxtaposition of the two pronouns, the joke could be rendered in Russian by means of compensation: Дамы и господа, к нам приближается Стирлинг Мосс… и вот его уже нет.
The temporal difference between this and that is illustrated by the contrast between the present/future, on the one hand, and the past, on the other: This is odd. This will be interesting. That was nice. (Compare the Russian: Это странно. Это будет интересно. Это было неплохо.)
In informal speech, notwithstanding space and time, this/these is used with positive connotations, to emphasize a good attitude to somebody/something, whereas that/those indicates a negative attitude: Then I saw away in the distance, this lovely girl. The speaker's positive attitude to the girl can be compensated by an emphatic adjective or by some emotional affix, typical of Russian: И тогда я увидел вдалеке прелестн(ейш)ую девушку. Here is that awful Jones and those ugly children of his. - А вот и гадкий Джоунз и его скверные дети.
A typical mistake made by Russians attempting to translate into English is overuse of the pronoun such corresponding to такой. Such is much more emphatic than the Russian такой. It can be used in emotional speech: Это такой хороший фильм! - It's such a good film! But in neutral speech it is better to substitute такой by the pronouns this/that, that kind of, like that. For example, Он опять сделал такую же грубую ошибку. - He made that kind of blunder again. He made a blunder like that again.
Chapter 6. TRANSLATING THE ARTICLE
One of the grammar challenges in translating from English, and especially into English, is the article, since this category no longer exists in the Russian language.
Article translation depends on the function the article has in the sentence.
§1. TRANSLATING THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The indefinite article can have the following functions in the sentence:
classifying
numeric
aspect
individual generalizing
When in classifying function, the article signifies an object as a representative of a class. Usually it is not translated into Russian: He is a taxi-driver. - Он водитель такси. Some translation theorists call this a zero transformation. Another possible version of translation is the article compensation by the pronoun какой-то/какой-нибудь: Tell me a joke. - Расскажи какой-нибудь анекдот. The article can also be compensated by the partitive один из: He is a director of the company. - Он один из директоров этой компании.
In Russian, we sometimes use the intoductory word один in the classifying function: Я знаю одного человека, который знает это. This pronominative adjective has the classifying function and corresponds to the indefinite article a/an but not to the numeral one: I know a person who knows it.
When used with proper nouns, the classifying article is always compensated, either by the pronoun некий/какой-то: A Mr. Jones called you this morning. - Сегодня утром тебе звонил некий мистер Джоунз., or by the adjective настоящий: You will never be a Dombey. - Ты никогда не станешь настоящим Домби.
The classifying article can change the meaning of a proper name and turn it into a common name denoting a work of art: This museum has a Picasso. - В этом музее есть (картина) Пикассо. If the context allows, the zero transformation can be employed; if not, the translated sentence requires extension.
Thus, lexical compensators of the classifying article might be as follows: один из, некий, какой-то, некто, один, настоящий, такой.
If a noun with the classifying article is in the beginning of the sentence, the word order in the sentence is usually changed, with the subject taking the final position in the Russian sentence: A passenger looked out of the window. - Из окна выглянул пассажир.
The article in the numeric function retains its historical meaning of “one”: I'll be back in a minute. - Я вернусь через (одну) минутку. This meaning is either rendered in Russian by the corresponding numeral or is not translated at all. With the names of material the numeric article denotes one portion or one sort, so it can be compensated by a noun phrase: I'd like a coffee, please. - Мне, пожалуйста, чашечку кофе.
When the numeric article is used with the ordinal numeral, it conveys the meaning of addition and corresponds to the Russian ещё один, другой: He ordered a second coffee. - Он заказал еще один кофе.
On the whole, lexical compensators of the numeric article can be the following: один, ещё один, очередной, второй, новый, такой же, одинаковый, целый.
The article in the aspect functions helps to single out some aspect or quality of the phenomenon,1133 В о л к о в а Е. И. Английский артикль в речевых ситуациях. - М.: Просвещение, 1974. - С. 78-82.33 a particular example of a quality, idea or feeling. Very often it is compensated by a pronoun какой-то, некоторый, or a phrase своего рода, так называемый to emphasize something unusual, strange or peculiar in the object: There was an indefinable sadness in his voice. - В его голосе была какая-то непонятная печаль. Failing the final exams was a bitter disappointment for me. - Провал на выпускных экзаменах оказался своего рода горьким разочарованием для меня. He proposed a National Intelligence Tasking Center. - Он предложил создать так называемый Национальный центр по проверке интеллекта. Followed by a form similar to that of the superlative degree, a group with the indefinite article denotes an object of fairly high quality and is translated by the particles довольно, весьма: That's a most amusing story. - Это весьма забавная история.
In summary, the compensatory means of the aspect article are as follows: некоторый, какой-то, своего рода, как бы, свой, крайне, весьма, довольно, известный.
The article in the individual generalizing function signifies a class made up of individual objects. Any object of the class gives the idea of the whole class. This kind of article is usually not translated into Russian: A drowning man catches at a straw. - Утопающий хватается за соломинку. This article can also be compensated by the pronouns любой, каждый, всякий, сам: A book is a mirror. - Любая книга подобна зеркалу. …even a Colbert could not put things right. - Даже сам Кольбер не смог бы ничего исправить.
§2. TRANSLATING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
The definite article is usually used in one of the two functions:
specifying
generic
The specifying article specifies the definite object, either known to the speaker and listener or inferred from the situation. In this case it is often compensated by a Russian pronoun (вот) этот, (вон) тот, тот самый: Here is the man we are looking for. - Вот тот человек, которого мы ищем. Sometimes in Russian the specifying function is not expressed; in this case a zero transformation takes place: This is the house that Jack built. - Вот дом, который построил Джек. (Though not verbalized, the specifying function is implied here and can be easily compensated: Вот этот дом, который построил Джек.) The definite article can also be compensated by a possessive pronoun: “How's the leg today, Mrs. Steel?” “Not too bad, thank you, doctor.” - «Как ваша нога сегодня?» «Спасибо, доктор, неплохо.» The specifying article can also be compensated by the adjectives известный, данный, вышеупомянутый, вышеуказанный or some others according to the context: P. Tchaikovsky, the great Russian composer, is loved all over the world. - П. Чайковского, известного русского композитора, любят во всем мире. You don't mean you met the Richard Gere, do you? - Ты хочешь сказать, что встретила того самого Ричарда Гира, известного всему миру актера?
The generic definite article helps to designate a class as a whole. As such it is often translated by substituting the noun in the singular with that in the plural: The olive grows only in warm climates. - Оливки растут только в теплом климате.
The article in this function can also be compensated by the noun семья or its synonym when used with the name of the family: The Schmidts are coming to lunch on Saturday. - В субботу к нам на обед придет чета Шмидтов.
When used with the substantivized adjectives, the definite article denotes the plural (referring to people or things in general): The absent are never without fault. Nor the present without excuse. - У отсутствующих всегда найдется какая-нибудь вина. Как у присутствующих - какое-нибудь оправдание. It may denote the singular when referring to some abstract thing: I suppose we'll just have to wait for the inevitable. - Думаю, нам только остается ждать неизбежного.
§3. TRANSLATING THE ZERO ARTICLE
The main functions of the zero article are as follows:
generalizing
totalizing
qualifying
individualizing
The generalizing zero article indicates an abstract notion expressed by the noun rather than a concrete object. Therefore, it can be compensated by the following words: вообще, как таковой, if any: Woman is physically weaker than man. - Женщина вообще физически слабее мужчины. Life is short. - Жизнь (как таковая) коротка.
When usage of the zero article with the noun in the plural is close to that of the classifying indefinite article with the noun in the singular, the compensating pronoun все can be used: Museums are closed on Mondays. - В понедельник закрыты все музеи.
The totalizing zero article indicates that two or more objects are considered as a single unit, as a whole.1134 Там же. С.108-109.34 As such, the sentence can be translated either word for word or with the help of a resumptive word: He gave us ink, paper and pen and asked us to put down everything we could remember about the accident.1135 Там же. С.108.35 - Он дал нам ручку, чернила и бумагу и попросил написать все, что мы могли вспомнить об этом несчастном случае. Он дал нам все, что нужно для письма: ручку, чернила и бумагу - и попросил написать все, что вспомним об этом несчастном случае.
The qualifying zero article is used with the nouns referring to action, state, and /or quality rather than object: I'm really tired and I'm going to bed. - Я действительно устала и собираюсь лечь спать. He was soldier enough to fight that battle to its bitter end. - У него было достаточно мужества, чтобы выдержать битву до ее горького конца. He translated word for word. - Он все перевел дословно. Thus, to translate a sentence with the qualifying article, we often have to resort to substitution of a part of speech.
The individualizing zero article should be taken into account, first and foremost, in translating from Russian into English. It is common knowledge that no article is used with proper nouns. However, this article can also be characteristics of common nouns, referring to members of one's own family (in this case, the nouns are usually capitalized): I hope Uncle will not be late, because Grandmother is rather tired and so is Mother. - Надеюсь, что дядя не опоздает, так как бабушка довольно устала, и мама тоже. The article, thus, helps to understand whose family is meant, the speaker's or somebody else's: The puppies looked just like the neighbor's dog, so we assumed it was the father. - Щенята были очень похожи на соседского пса, поэтому мы предположили, что это был их отец.
The individualizing zero article is also typical of address: Почему ты плачешь, девочка? - Why do you cry, little girl? This article is also used with nouns modified by postpositional cardinal numerals: Откройте книги на странице 20. - Please open your books to page 20.
Chapter 7. TRANSLATING ATTRIBUTIVE CLUSTERS
§1. FEATURES OF THE ATTRIBUTIVE PHRASE
The attributive cluster is a group of words with a key noun and a number of attributive components modifying it. The average number of attributes is 7 2. The attributes can be expressed by an adjective (a gold ring), by a noun (a golden heart), or by a compound phrase similar to a clause (the I-don't-know-you expression on her face).
The order of attributes is not random. In English, closest to the key noun come the “factual” (objective) attributes (according to the general rule: the closer in meaning, the nearer in position), then the evaluative (subjective) attributes. Thus, some grammarians formulate the rule for the order of attributes before the noun: “OPSHACOM”, where OP stands for OPINION adjectives (beautiful, horrible, nice), SH for SHAPE adjectives (long, short, round, narrow), A for AGE (old, new, young), C for COLOR (red, black, orange), O for ORIGIN (British, Canadian, German), M for MATERIAL (plastic, metal, aluminum). For example, it is correct to say a nice long new black Chinese wooden pen, and it would be unnatural to change the word order.
In English the attributive phrase based on subordinate relations between the key word and the attributes consists of components belonging to different semantic groups, whereas in Russian we can come across semantically homogeneous elements: масло масляное, день деньской (*butter butter is absolutely impossible).
Semantic relations between the components of the attributive phrase can vary. Besides those mentioned, the attribute can denote the following: place (a beach house), time (evening newspaper), characteristics (overtime ban), reason (sickness pay), object (fish export), source (membership fees), purpose (face cream), subject (UNESCO call) and others.
There may be phrases in which the semantic relations could be interpreted in different ways. For example, Hong Kong proposals can be understood as a) proposals made in Hong Kong (place), b) proposals concerning Hong Kong (characteristics), c) proposals made when Hong Kong did not belong to China, before it got a new name of Xianggang (time). In this case only the context gives a clue to the correct understanding of the meaning.
§2. TRANSLATING THE ATTRIBUTIVE CLUSTER.
English and Russian attributive groups differ in their vectors. The English phrase is regressive, that is, it develops to the left, with the headword being the final element on the right. The Russian attributive phrase is progressive, it develops mostly to the right, with the attributes used in postposition: US car safety expert - американский специалист по безопасности автомобилей. This is also true of clusters with restrictive apposition: газета «Владивосток» - the Vladivostok newspaper; гостиница «Версаль» - the Versailles hotel.
Thus, to translate a multi-structured attributive group, it is necessary to analyze the meaning of its immediate constituents and then to adapt them to a proper Russian structure. For example, to translate the phrase a life support system control box,1136 П л о т к и н В. Я. Строй английского языка. - М.: Высшая школа, 1989. - С. 41.36 we single out its head noun, which is on the right and then do a kind of semantic immediate constituent analysis:
a life support system - control box (purpose) - пульт управления,
a life support - system control (object) -box- пульт управления системой,
a life - support system (characteristics) - control box - пульт управления системой поддержания,
a life support (object) - system control box - пульт управления системой поддержания жизни - пульт управления системой жизнеобеспечения.
Not all attributive phrases are as easily rendered as the above example. Some attributes may refer to either a key noun or another noun attribute. In the phrase a new control system the word new may modify the head noun system (новая система управления) or the noun attribute system (система нового управления).
Care should be taken not to confuse a head word with its attribute, as this misunderstanding may result in a distorted translation: control system - система управления; system control - управление системой; ballot strike - бойкот выборов; strike ballot - голосование по вопросам объявления забастовки..
The same method of immediate constituents is applied to translating attributive phrases from Russian into English: слуги старого короля = слуги короля + король старый > the king's servants + the old king = the old king's servants. Contrast this cluster with the following: старые слуги короля = старые слуги + слуги короля > old servants + the king's servants = the king's old servants. Here again we follow the rule of joining words: the closer semantically, the closer syntactically (positionally).
Attributive clusters can be translated through modulation, or logical development. For example, council house rents is rendered as плата за муниципальное жилье, since council here implies `city council' or `city administration', corresponding to the Russian `муниципалитет'.
Taking into account the more laconic and compressive character of English speech, it is sometimes necessary to extend the structure when translating into Russian: a five-man committee - комитет, состоящий из пяти человек, opinion poll - опрос общественного мнения, peace committee - комитет защиты мира.
Attributive strings are laconic and compressive. They help avoid monotonous prepositional phrases in Russian-to-English translations: регуляция динамики численности популяций should be rendered into English as regulation of population quantity dynamics, rather than dynamics of the regulation of the quantity of the population. Combining attributive clusters and prepositional phrases makes a word group sound more lively and more “English”: новая микропроцессорная система управления двигателями внутреннего сгорания легковых автомобилей - a new microprocessor system for automobile internal combustion engine control.
Since English prefers prepositional attributes, whereas Russian tends to use postpositional modifiers,1137 Л е в и ц к а я Т. Р., Ф и т е р м а н А. М. Теория и практика перевода с английского языка на русский. - М.: Изд-во лит. на иностр. яз., 1963. - С.62.37 a translator has to substitute an adjective with a noun, which is especially typical of ethnic names: Australian prosperity - процветание Австралии; Russian president - президент России.
There are some rare cases when an English attribute follows the noun: the man next door - человек, живущий по соседству; сосед. Sometimes the position of the attribute changes the meaning of the phrase: He is a hardworking and responsible employee. - Он трудолюбивый и ответственный работник versus You will be the person responsible if anything goes wrong in the project. - Ты будешь виноватым, если проект не пойдет. I'd like to thank everyone concerned for making the occasion run so smoothly. - Я бы хотел поблагодарить всех имеющих к этому отношение за то, что у нас все прошло так гладко versus Concerned parents have complained about the dangerous playground. - Обеспокоенные родители жалуются на то, что на детской площадке стало опасно играть.
Sometimes Russian attributive groups may correspond to a single English word, so calque translation will seem overworded: официальный орган печати - gazette, папка документов - file.1138 К р у п н о в В. Н. Курс перевода . Английский язык.: общественно-политическая лексика. - М.: Международные отношения, 1979. - С.25.38
Translating attributive quotations (цитатные речения) is another challenging problem. They often have predicative relations between the components and, therefore, resemble separate clauses. For instance, There is a sort of Oh-what-a-wicked-world-this-is-and-how-I-wish-I-could-do-something-to-make-it-better-and-nobler expression about Montmorency (Jerome K. Jerome). Монморенси глядит на вас с таким выражением, словно хочет сказать: «О, как испорчен этот мир и как бы я желал сделать его лучше и благороднее». (Пер. М. Салье) This example demonstrates that attributive clusters like this can be rendered as a comparison, with the extension and direct quotation.
Chapter 8. SYNTACTIC CHANGES IN TRANSLATION
§1. COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SENTENCE
Each sentence can be spoken of in different aspects. A syntactic aspect implies the sentence analysis in terms of parts of the sentence (sentence subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier). Syntax reveals the relation of sentence parts to each other. A semantic aspect implies the relation of sentence components to the elements of the real situation named by the sentence. This can be done in terms of case grammar1139 F i l l m o r e C h. The case for case. // Universals in Linguistic Theory / Bach E., Harms R. (eds.) New York, 1968. - P.1-88.39 or reference theory,1140 B e l l R. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. - London and New York: Longman, 1991. - p. 84.40 or by singling out the agent, object and other semantic roles. A third aspect is pragmatic, or communicative. It implies the relation of the sentence to its users. The speaker makes up a sentence so as to stress logically this or that part of the information conveyed by the sentence. Therefore, this type of sentence structure is called information (communicative) structure, and this type of sentence analysis is referred to as actual division of the sentence,1141 Ш е в я к о в а В. Е. Современный английский язык: Порядок слов, актуальное членение, интонация - М.: Наука, 1980.41 or functional sentence perspective.1142 Ч е р н я х о в с к а я Л. А. Перевод и смысловая структура - М.: Международные отношения, 1976.42
Normally, each sentence develops from a known piece of information, called the theme, to a new one, called the rheme. The rhematic component is the information center of the sentence. It is logically stressed. It can be easily singled out in speech by contrasting it to some other word: The early bird catches the worm, not the trap. The early bird catches the worm, not the late one. The rhematic word usually answers a special question: e.g., Whom does the early bird catch? - The early bird catches the worm. What kind of bird catches the worm? - The early bird catches the worm.
In addition to the methods of contrasting and questioning, there are some other signals for the rhematic component. They include:
the indefinite article of the sentence subject: A little evil is often necessary for obtaining a great good.
a long extended part of the sentence; compare: Many people saw it. - People saw it.
negation: Not he who has much is rich, but he who gives much.
intensifiers (only, even, just, such as, etc.): Only the educated are free. (Cf. The educated are free.)
some special constructions (there is; it is… (who); passive constructions with the by-agent expressed): It is human nature to think wisely and to act foolishly.
The sentence communicative structure is different in English and in Russian. In Russian it is more rigid, which compensates a loose word order of the sentence. English fixed word order, on the other hand, is compensated by a free, to some extent, functional sentence perspective. In Russian neutral style, the theme precedes the rheme, which means that a logically stressed part of the sentence is in the final position. In English, the rheme can be interrupted by the theme or even precede the theme: There is an unknown word in the text. (T-R-T) - В тексте есть незнакомое слово. (T-R).
§2. WORD ORDER CHANGE DUE TO THE FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE
When the English and Russian functional sentence perspectives do not coincide, a word order change is applied in translation.
Thus, the rhematic subject in English usually takes the initial position, whereas in Russian it should be placed at the end of the sentence: A faint perfume of jasmine came through the open window. (O.Wilde) - Сквозь открытое окно доносился легкий аромат жасмина. A waitress came to their table. - К их столику подошла официантка.
This transformation is evident in comparing the structures with the subjects introduced by the definite and indefinite articles. A sentence that has the definite article with the subject has the same word order: The woman entered the house. - Женщина вошла в дом. On the other hand, a word order change takes place in a similar sentence if its subject is determined by the indefinite article: A woman entered the house. - В дом вошла женщина.
To emphasize the rhematic subject of the sentence, the construction it is … that (who) can be used in English. For example, It is not by means of any tricks or devices that the remarkable effect of Milton's verse is produced. - Удивительный эффект стихов Мильтона объясняется вовсе не какими-то особыми ухищрениями.1143 The example is taken from: Ц ы п ы ш е в а М. Е. Читаем, переводим английские научные тексты. - СПб: Наука, 1996. - С.259-260.43 The rhematic component is positioned at the end of the Russian sentence. Another example: It was the Russian-born American physicist Vladimir Zworykin who made the first electronic television in the 1920s. - Именно Владимир Зворыкин, американский физик русского происхождения, создал электронный телевизор в 20-х годах XX столетия. In Russian, the emphasis on the semantic center of the sentence is made either with the help of the intensifier (именно), or else the meaning can be rendered through a change of word order: Электронный телевизор в 20-х годах XX столетия создал Владимир Зворыкин, американский физик русского происхождения.
Thematic components in Russian are shifted to the initial position, which often happens with objects and adverbial modifiers: It was early for that. - Для этого еще было рано. A typical case is the sentence introduced by there is/are. Here the subject is rhematic and the adverbial modifier of place is thematic. Therefore, the construction is normally translated into Russian with the adverbial in the initial position: There is a book on the table. - На столе лежит книга. Compare this sentence with one of a thematic subject: The book is on the table. - Книга лежит на столе. If there is no adverbial modifier of place in the English sentence (to start the translation), the sentence beginning with there is is rendered in Russian by the verb существует: There are three kinds of solid body. - Существует три вида твердого тела.
Adverbial modifiers of place and time are usually mirrored in translation. Being thematic, they are positioned in the beginning of the Russian sentence, and in English they take the final position: Вчера в Москве состоялась встреча президента России с президентом Франции. - A meeting of the Russian president and the French president was held in Moscow yesterday.
A rhematic component expressing the agent of the action in the passive construction cannot be placed as the initial subject of the translated sentence: The telephone was invented by A. Bell. corresponds to Телефон изобрел А. Белл. (not to А. Белл изобрел телефон.)
§3. SENTENCE PARTITIONING AND INTEGRATION
Sentence partitioning means substituting a complex or compound sentence with several simple ones, or a simple sentence with a complex one, containing some clauses:
Sentence integration is the opposite transformation - substituting several simple sentences with a complex/compound one, or a complex sentence with a simple one.
These transformations can occur for the following reasons:
Grammar structure differences between the source language and the target language. For example, there are some special constructions in English that do not exist in Russian. They are translated by a complex sentence (the Complex Object, Complex Subject, Absolute constructions, etc.).
I want you to speak English fluently. - Я хочу, чтобы вы бегло говорили по-английски.
They sat down to supper, Manson still talking cheerfully. - Они сели ужинать, а Мэнсон все еще оживленно говорил.
Sentence integration is necessary when the English sentence starts with the conjunctions or, nor, but, for, since the beginning of this type is alien to Russian written speech: Man is the only animal that blushes. Or needs to. (Shaw) - Человек -единственное существо, которое краснеет или которому надо бы краснеть.
Semantics. If two or more separate ideas are linked together in the source text (which sometime may reveal bad style), a translator can partition them. For example,
Мы получили очень краткую информацию о Вашем фонде, поэтому не можем точно определиться с порядком направления вам заявок и направляем вам это письмо. - We have received very brief information about your Fund. Therefore, we do not know exactly the requirements for application. That is why we send you this letter.
Sentence integration can take place because of the close semantic bonds between the sentences. For instance, Это хозяйство занимается выращиванием овощей и зерна, имеет молочное стадо. Этой деятельностью хозяйство занимается длительный период времени. - This farm has been growing vegetables and grains and breeding dairy herd for a long period of time.
Genre and style requirements.
English-speaking journalists are known to conjoin several ideas in one sentence (which is especially typical of the lead sentence). When translated into Russian, these sentences are usually partitioned: The 23 foreign ministers are due to meet on May 11-12 at the end of the conference when it had been hoped that they would sign an accord allowing surveillance flights over each other's territory. - 23 министра иностранных дел должны встретиться 11-12 мая, к концу работы конференции. Предполагалось, что они подпишут неофициальное соглашение о взаимных контрольных полетах над территорией своих государств.
Weather forecasts in English newspapers are usually expressed by long sentences. In Russian, the style and genre require short sentences, with the loss of expressiveness typical of an English forecast. For example,
Mist and coastal fog patches over Scotland will also thin to offer a bright start, but with more general clouds, and occasional rain will arrive from the west by late morning. - Туман на побережье Шотландии и морось рассеются. Ожидается солнечный день, временами облачно. К полудню на западе возможны кратковременные дожди.
Chapter 9. DIFFERENCE IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN PUNCTUATION
§1. PRINCIPLES OF PUNCTUATION IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN
It is difficult to overstate the importance of proper punctuation in written translation. Readers of translation evaluate not only the content but also the form of the translation. A translator's accuracy, neatness, efficiency and carefulness are assessed by the completed translation. Moreover, a firm's reputation can depend on the accurate and neat documents prepared by the translator.
The semantic role of punctuation is crucial when a comma can decide vital things (remember the Russian joke: Казнить нельзя помиловать. Or the analogous English phrase: Some time after the actual date was set.)
English and Russian punctuation “provide a fresh challenge”1144 G o r d o n I. Practical Punctuation // Гордон И. Практическое пособие по пунктуации английского языка. - М.: Высшая школа, 1981.44 for both Russian and English students because it is based on different principles in both languages. In Russian, punctuation is, first and foremost, structurally dependent, which means that specific structures (such as parallel (homogeneous) parts of the sentence, participial phrases, subordinate clauses etc.) are singled out in the sentence. Russian punctuation is regulated by syntactic rules - for many Russian schoolchildren syntax is associated with punctuation. English punctuation is logically and communicatively bound. It depends much more on semantics and intonation; therefore, it is likely that Russian students consider it to be more subjective. Optional information segments and rhythmic groups are normally separated by a comma: At the back of good English dictionaries, there is usually a list of current abbreviations. Also, we noticed that the salaries declined after the first year. In general, the principle of English punctuation can be formulated as follows: the closer semantic bonds, the closer the word position should be. The more optional information is, the more separated (by punctuation marks) the sentence parts are.
§2. DIFFERENCES IN COMMA USAGE
In an English sentence, the comma is generally used to separate an adverbial phrase or clause preceding the main clause: By then, early estimates of as many as 250 fatalities had begun to look far too high. - К тому времени оказалось, что прежние сообщения о 250 жертвах землетрясения были значительно преувеличены. If you feel seasick, take one of these pills. - Cf. Take one of these pills if you are seasick (no comma before a postpositional adverbial clause).
With postpositional adverbial clauses the comma is used only in clauses of reason introduced by the conjunctions for, as, since: She remained silent, for her heart was heavy and her spirits low.
In the attributive (relative) clauses, usage of the comma depends upon the completeness of the sentence. If the information conveyed by the relative clause is very important and without it the sentence seems incomplete, the comma is never used: The bicycle that won the race weighed only 12 pounds. (Semantically, clauses introduced by that are always closely connected with the main clause. Therefore, they are never separated by the comma.) Compare: The winning bicycle, which weighed only 12 pounds, was made in France. Here the information conveyed by the relative clause is optional, so the clause is separated by commas.
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