English for technical students

Washington, the capital of the USA, is situated in the District of Columbia (DC), named after Columbus, the discoverer of America. The city is named in honour of the first President George Washington who selected the location for the capital. Washington has been the capital of the USA since 1800.

The United States is a federal union of 50 states, each of which has its own government. The seat of the central (federal) government is the capital of the US - Washington, DC. This district is a piece of land which doesn't belong to any state. According to the US Constitution the power in the country is divided into 3 branches: the executive, headed by the President, the legislative, exercised by the Congress, and the judicial. The Congress consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The seat of the Congress is the Capitol. The US President is chosen by electors from each state and holds office for 4 years. Nowadays the President may be elected for two terms only. The President must be a U.S. citizen by birth, resident in the country for 14 years, and at least 35 years old. The presidential election is held every fourth year (leap year) on the first Tuesday in November. The official residence of the US President is the White House, where he works in the Oval Office.

The national banner of the United States of America, commonly known as “The Stars and Stripes” or “Old Glory”, is a flag bearing 50 stars and 13 stripes. Each star represents a present-day state and each stripe stands for one of the 13 original colonies. The national symbol of the US is the eagle.

Виберіть правильний варіант.

1. The discoverer of America was (Amerigo Vespucci, Christopher Columbus, Captain John Smith). 2. In the west the USA is washed by (the Atlantic Ocean, the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean). 3. The US is the (fourth largest, smallest, largest) country in the world. 4. In the south the US borders on (Canada, Russia, Mexico). 5. The Great Lakes are situated in the (eastern, northern, western) part of the country. 6. The capital of the USA is (San Francisco, New York, Washington). 7. The American President is elected for (4, 5, 15) years. 8. The seat of the Congress is (the White House, the Capitol, the Empire State building). 9. The presidential elections are held on (the first Tuesday in November, the first Sunday in January, the first of May). 10. The American flag is called (“The Union Jack”, “The Maple Leaf”, “The Stars and Stripes”).

Письмові завдання

Вправа 1. Заповніть пропуски словами: large cities, the greatest, moun-tains, boarders on, rivers, subtropical, fifty states, situated, Federal district of Columbia, the largest city, washed by, very changeable, cities, cold weather, stands, the Appalachians, capital.

1. The United States of America is one of ___ countries in the world. 2. It is ___ on the North America continent and is ___ two oceans: the Pacific and the Atlantic. 3. The USA ___ only two countries - Canada and Mexico. 4. This great country has a lot of ___, rivers and lakes. 5. The main mountains are ___ and the Cordilleras. 6. The longest ___ are the Mississippi and its tributary, the Missouri. 7. The climate of the country is ___. 8. In the southern part the climate is ___ while the northern part has very ___ in winter. 9. America has ___ and one ____, where the capital of the USA is situated. 10. The ___ of the USA is Washington. 11. It is ___ on the Potomac river in the eastern part of the country. 12. The main ___ are located at the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. 13. New York, the ___ of the country, is situated on Manhattan Island. 14. Other ___ are San Francisco, Los Angeles, Detroit, Chicago, Phoenix and Dallas.

Читання

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What Is the Big Deal about Quantum Theory?

Quantum theory is the theory that radiant energy is given off and absorbed in units, sort of like bullets from a gun, rather than a steady stream, like a water hose. It was originated by Max Planck, a German physicist, in 1900 through studies he made on radiant energy. Before his discovery, scientists thought that energy, like all other physical processes, was emitted and absorbed conti-nuously. In 1905, Albert Einstein took it a step further and established quantum theory by showing that the energy of light is concentrated in particle-like quanta, rather than in a continuous wave. Today, physicists generally treat light as a wave in processes that involve its transmission, and as quanta, called photons, in processes involving emission or absorption. Quantum theory completely changed the study of physics and paved the way for discoveries about photo-electricity, photochemistry, and the structure and activities of atoms.

Виберіть правильний варіант.

1. Quantum theory deals with ___.

a) radiant energy b) nuclear energy c) kinetic energy

2. The author of this theory was ___.

a) Mark Twain b) Max Planck c) Pierre Curie

3. Photons are quanta of ___.

a) energy b) sound c) light

Граматика. Повторення модальних дієслів з перфектним інфінітивом

Вправа 2. Заповніть пропуски дієсловами might not або couldn't.

1. - Do you think she saw you? - No, she was too far away. She couldn't have seen me. 2. - I wonder why she didn't say hello. Perhaps she didn't notice me. - That's possible. She ___. 3. - I wonder why Ann didn't come to the party. Perhaps she wasn't invited. - Yes, it's possible. She ___. 4. - Tom loves parties. I'm sure he would have come to the party if he'd been invited. - I agree. He ___. 5. - I wonder how the fire started. Do you think it was an accident? - No, the police say it ___. 6. - How did the fire start? I suppose it was an accident. - Well, the police aren't sure. They say it ___.

Вправа 3. Заповніть пропуски дієсловами a) should; b) shouldn't; c) must; d) mustn't; e) needn't.

1. You ___ think about the future and not about the past. 2. You ___ have a visa to travel to some countries. However, if you come from an EEC country and you want to travel to another one, you ___ worry about visas. You ___ even take your passport. 4. If you are travelling by air, you ___ carry anything in your luggage that could be used as a weapon, such as a knife or even a pair of scissors. 5. You ___ use your energy unless you have to. 6. Books ___ be returned on or before the date stamped below. 7. They look alike. They ___ be twins. 8. Do you know how it ___ be done? 9. You ___walk alone around the town late at night. 10. We ___ have taken a wrong map. 11. I think you ___ have told her you were sorry.

Домашнє завдання

Вправа 4. Перекладіть англійською, вживаючи модальні дієслова (can, can't, may, must, needn't, shouldn't).

1. Вона, напевно, вдома зараз. 2. Вона, напевно, була на конференції вчора. 3. Можливо, ми прийдемо до вас завтра. 4. Можливо, вони приходили до нас вчора, але нас не було вдома. 5. Він, напевно, бачив цей пам'ятник, коли був в нашому місті минулого разу. 6. Вони, напевно, вже спиляли всі дерева. 7. Не може бути, що він знає номер мого телефону. 8. Не може бути, що він бачив цю картину. 9. Ти можеш піти туди ввечері, я не заперечую. 10. Ти зможеш дійти туди пішки: це зовсім близько. 11. Ти не можеш піти туди: ти не знаєш адреси. 12. Ти можеш не ходити туди: я можу їм подзвонити. 13. Ти не повинен ходити на збори: це не обов'яз-ково. 14. Ти міг і не ходити туди вчора. 15. Тобі слід піти туди: вони тебе чекають. 16. Тобі слід було піти туди вчора. 17. Тобі не слід було ходити туди вчора.

Вправа 5. Доповніть речення відповідним прийменником.

1. The main land mass ___the United States ___ America lies ___ the central part ___ the North American continent. 2. The United States borders ___ Canada ___ the north. 3. The national government consists ___ executive, legislative, and judicial branches. 4. The American Constitution is based ___ the doctrine of the separation of powers. 5. Article I offers all legislative power ___ the Congress. 6. The Constitution was ratified ___ 1788. 7. The USA is rich ___ different mineral resources. 8. The temperature changes little ___ winter and summer there. 9. The US economy is based ___ the free enterprise system. 10. The American way ___ living has been reflected ___ the works ___ American writers such as J. London, M. Twain, Th. Dreiser, E. Hemingway and others.

Вправа 6. Складіть розповідь про Сполучені Штати Америки з вико-ристанням активних слів та виразів.

Lesson 4.5 Washington

Розмовна тема. Вашингтон

Active Vocabulary:

separate - окремий; to be named in honor - бути названим на честь; to owe - завдячувати; except - окрім; scrap paper - макулатура; representative - представник; sky-scraper - хмарочос; hollow --пустий; to enjoy - милува-тися чимось; to be surrounded - бути оточеним; cherry-trees - вишневі дерева; slave - раб; on the other bank - на іншому березі; cemetery - кладовище.

Washington, the capital of the United States of America, is situated on the Potomac River in the District of Columbia. The district occupies the area of only ten square miles and does not belong to any separate state. It was named in honor of Columbus, the discoverer of America.

The capital owes much to the first President of the USA - George Washington. It was G. Washington, who chose the place for the District and laid in 1790 the corner-stone of the Capitol, where Congress sits.

Washington is not the largest city in the USA. It has a population of 900,000 people.

Washington has many historical places. The largest and tallest among the buildings is the Capitol with its great House of Representatives and the Senate chamber. There are no sky-scrapers in Washington because no other building must be taller than the Capitol.

The White House is the President's residence. All American presidents except George Washington (the White House was not yet built in his time) have lived in the White House. It was built in 1799. It is a two-storeyed white building.

Not far from the Capitol is the Washington Monument, which looks like a very big pencil. It rises 160 meters high and is hollow inside. A special lift brings visitors to the top in 70 seconds from where they can enjoy a wonderful view of the whole city.

The Jefferson Memorial was built in memory of the third President of the USA, Thomas Jefferson, who was also the author of the Declaration of Independence. The memorial is surrounded by cherry-trees.

The Lincoln Memorial is devoted to the memory of the 16th President of the US, the author of the Emancipation Proclamation, which gave freedom to Negro slaves in America.

On the other bank of the Potomac lies the Arlington National Cemetery where President Kennedy was buried. American soldiers and officers, who died in the World Wars I and II are buried there too.

Дайте відповіді на запитання.

1. What city is the capital of the USA? 2. Where is Washington situated? 3. To which state does the city of Washington belong? 4. In whose honor is the district of Columbia named? 5. Who was the first President of the USA? 6. Who chose the place for the District? 7. Is Washington a large city? 8. What is the population of Washington? 9. Why are there no sky-scrapers in Washington? 10. Where is the President's residence? 11. When was the White House built? 12. In whose memory was the Jefferson Memorial built? 13. Who is the author of the Declaration of Independence? 14. Which document gave freedom to Negro slaves in America? 15. Who was buried at the Arlington National Cemetery?

Письмові завдання

Прочитайте текст, знайдіть у словнику та випишіть підкреслені слова, виконайте завдання після тексту.

Los Angeles

Los Angeles, Spanish for “The Angels”, is the most populous city in California and the second largest in the United States, after New York City, with a population of 3.8 million, on a land area of 498.3 square miles (1,290.6 km²). It is the focal point of the larger Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside combined statistical area, which contains nearly 17.8 million people and which is one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world and the second largest in the United States. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most multicultural counties in the United States. The city's inhabitants are referred to as “Angelenos”. Los Angeles was founded on September 4, 1781 by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It was incorporated as a municipality on April 4, 1850, five months before California achieved statehood.

Often known by its initials, LA, and nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is a world center of business, international trade, entertainment, culture, media, fashion, science, technology, and education. Los Angeles has been ranked the third richest city and fifth most powerful and influential city in the world, behind only New York City in the United States. As the home base of Hollywood, it is known as the “Entertainment Capital of the World”, leading the world in the creation of motion pictures, television production, video games, and recorded music. The importance of the entertainment business to the city has led many celebrities to call Los Angeles and its surrounding suburbs home. Los Angeles hosted the 1932 and 1984 Summer Olympics. Such famous universities as the University of Southern California and the University of California are situated there, too.

Los Angeles enjoys a Mediterranean climate and sunny weather. It's a modern city with something for everyone. It's noisy and crowded but fascinating.

Вправа 1. Визначте, чи правильними є такі твердження.

1. Los Angeles is Italian for “The Angels”. 2. Los Angeles is the seat of the US government. 3. It is the second largest city in the United States. 4. Los Angeles was founded on September 4, 1781 by Mexican governor Felipe de Neve. 5. The nickname of the city is the City of Angels. 6. Los Angeles has taken the third place as the richest city in the world. 7. Hollywood is known as the “Commercial Capital of the World”. 8. Los Angeles has a maritime climate with frequent rains and strong winds.

Читання

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The Fascinating World of Crystals

Just what are crystals? A crystal is an organized grouping of atoms, or molecules. Each crystal has different properties and shapes. For example, sugar crystals are oblong and slanted at the ends; salt crystals are cubic. Some elements can make more than one crystalline form. Carbon, as graphite, will conduct electricity, act as a lubricant between moving parts, be used as a writing tool (a pencil) and strengthen of steel. As diamond, carbon is used as an industrial cutting tool and as a gemstone in jewelry.

Crystals can be used in many ways. Diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds have been the showiest use of crystals for thousands of years. They were highly valued due to their beauty and relative small amounts that exist in nature. In recent years chemists have been working on methods of creating some of these crystals in the laboratory with a lot of success.

Each different crystal vibrates at a specific frequency when an electric current is passed through it. The original radios were created using vibrating crystals to create the frequency to transmit signals. As radio technology improved, radio transmitters had several different crystals to allow transmission on different frequencies. Modern radios have large number of different frequencies used by radio stations.

Vibrating crystals can be used for time keeping. A quartz clock uses the vibration of a quartz crystal to measure time. When the crystal has an electric current passed through it, the crystal will vibrate at 60 hertz (60 times per second).

Дайте відповіді на запитання.

1. What shape has a salt crystal?

а) star; b) cubic; b) pyramid.

2. Some crystaline form of carbon is used as a ___.

а) lubricant between moving parts; b) rocket fuel; в) food additive.

3. In the radio, vibrating crystals are used ___.

а) to switch between channels; b) to transmit signals; в) to receive signals.

Граматика. Функції дієслів to be, to have

Форми дієслова to be

Present - am, is, are Past - was, were Participle II - been

Форми дієслова to have

Present - have, has Past - had Participle II - had

Вправа 2. Перекладіть речення, звертаючи увагу на переклад дієслів to be, to have. Визначте функцію цих дієслів у реченнях: a) основне діє-слово; b) допоміжне дієслово; c) модальне дієслово.

1. We have just learned the structure of a diesel engine. 2. She was writing a letter when she realized that she was not alone in the room any more. 3. You have to check the calculations once more before giving them to your teacher. 4. He was asked a difficult question at the exam. 5. Sorry, I didn't come to the meeting because I had much work in the laboratory. 6. Students of our faculty were awarded a prize for their scientific experiments. 7. The conference had been finished by 5 o'clock and I had time to go to the library. 8. He is to come to me tomorrow, he promised.

Вправа 3. Перекладіть речення англійською мовою, звертаючи увагу на переклад дієслів to be, to have.

1. В мене є гарна ідея, де відзначити твій день народження. 2. Щоб всту-пити до університету, учні мають скласти тести. 3. Декан розповів на зустрічі, що Максим був найкращим студентом факультету. 4. Я щойно говорив із завідувачем лабораторії. Тепер ми маємо дозвіл на проведення цього експерименту. 5. Я впевнений, що вона була вдома, коли я приходив. 6. Згідно з білетами ми маємо вирушити до Німеччини завтра вранці. 7. Я забув вдома папку з документами, і мені довелося повертатися. 8. Мені нічого тобі сказати. Я сам ще не бачив результатів іспиту. 9. Після закін-чення університету я буду першокласним спеціалістом в цій галузі.

Домашнє завдання

Вправа 4. Складіть по одному реченню з кожною формою дієслів to be і to have так, як показано у прикладах в таблицях п. 23.4.

Вправа 6. Складіть розповідь про Вашингтон з використанням актив-них слів та виразів.



Appendix I. Supplementary Reading to Lessons

To Lesson 2

Satomi (Japan)

There are five members in my family: my mom, dad, grandmother, brother and myself. My dad works for a golf company. My mom is a housewife. My brother is majoring in tourism at Rikkyo University. When I was four, we moved from Kanagawa to Tokyo because we bought a new house. Now, we're living with my grandma. She used to be a very energetic ikebana teacher, but she's getting old. So, we're supporting her as much as possible. I was influenced by her very much because in my childhood she mainly took care of me and I wanted to be a woman like her in every respect. Now, she's not what she used to be; however, I really love her and my family also really loves her. That's why we'll continue to look after her. As for my grandpa, he died before I was born. Therefore I don't know very much about him. One thing I know about him is that thanks to his job (teacher), he didn't have to go to the war.

Daniel (USA)

My immediate family consists of six people. I am the youngest of four children. I have an elder brother John, who is twenty-five and two sisters. Jackie is twenty-two, while Anne-Marie is twenty-eight. John graduated from the University of Michigan and is an engineer, while Jackie has just graduated from the University of John Carol. Anne-Marie is an attorney, and currently works for McDonalds, dealing with their corporate material. My father has been the provider for the family as a doctor, and my mother works as a secretary and housemother. My family is always there for me through the rough times, even though I see little of them now.

Sarah (USA)

My family consists of my father (George), mother (Jennifer), my elder sister Korie, me, and my younger sister Vanessa. Korie is 21, and she is a senior at the Ohio State University. She has a double major of journalism and political science and is an editor of the school's newspaper, the Lantern. She plans to graduate after the summer quarter. My little sister, Vanessa, is 5 years old, and is in her last year of pre-school. She will start kindergarten next year. My father and mother are both alumni of the Ohio State University. My father works for Conrail/CSX, and my mother as a family and consumer sciences teacher for Benjamin Logan High School. My parents made our family's home in Belle Center in 1980. This was after living in Marysville, Ohio, and Runnemede, New Jersey, respectively. The house that we call home now has always been home to me.

To Lesson 4

Archimedes

Archimedes was born in 287 ВС in Syracuse, Sicily and died in 212 ВС in Syracuse, Sicily.

Archimedes' father was Phidias, an astronomer. We know nothing else about Phidias other than this one fact and we only know this since Archimedes gives us this information in one of his works, The Sandreckoner. A friend of Archimedes called Heraclites wrote a biography of him but sadly this work is lost.

Archimedes was a native of Syracuse, Sicily. It is reported by some authors that he visited Egypt and there invented a device now known as Archimedes' screw. This is a pump, still used in many parts of the world. When he was a young man, Archimedes studied with the successors of Euclid in Alexandria. Certainly he was completely familiar with the mathematics developed there, but what makes this version much more certain, he knew personally the mathematicians working there and he sent his results to Alexandria with personal messages!

Yet Archimedes, although he achieved fame by his mechanical inventions, believed that pure mathematics was the only worthy matter.

The achievements of Archimedes are quite outstanding. He is considered by most historians of mathematics as one of the greatest mathematicians of all times. He perfected a method of integration which allowed him to find areas, volumes and surface areas of many bodies.

Archimedes was able to apply the method of exhaustion (метод перебора), which is the early form of integration, to obtain a whole range of important results. Archimedes also showed that he could approximate square roots accurately. He invented a system for expressing large numbers. In mechanics Archimedes discovered fundamental theorems concerning the centre of gravity of plane figures and solids. His most famous theorem gives the weight of a body immersed in a liquid, called Archimedes' principle. This principle is contained in his work On floating bodies, a work in which Archimedes lays down the basic principles of hydrostatics. He also studied the stability of various floating bodies of different shapes and different specific gravities.

The Sandreckoner is a remarkable work in which Archimedes proposes a number system capable of expressing numbers up to 8*10⁶³ in modem notation. He argues in this work that this number is large enough to count the number of grains of sand which could be fitted into the universe.

Archimedes was killed in 212 ВС during the capture of Syracuse by the Romans in the Second Punic War after all his efforts to hold back the Romans with his machines of war had failed.

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein was born in Germany in 1879. He enjoyed classical music and played the violin. One story Einstein liked to tell about his childhood was of a wonder he saw when he was four or five years old: a magnetic compass. The needle's invariable northward swing, guided by an invisible force, profoundly impressed the child. The compass convinced him that there had to be “something behind things, something deeply hidden”.

Even as a small boy Albert Einstein was self-sufficient and thoughtful. According to family legend he was a slow talker, pausing to consider what he would say. His sister remembered the concentration and perseverance with which he would build houses of cards.

Albert Einstein's first job was that of patent clerk.

In 1933, he joined the staff of the newly created Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He accepted this position for life, living there until his death. Einstein is probably familiar to most people for his mathematical equation about the nature of energy, E= MC².

Albert Einstein wrote a paper with a new understanding of the structure of light. He argued that light can act as though it consists of discrete, independent particles of energy, in some ways like the particles of a gas. A few years before, Max Planck's work had contained the first suggestion of discreteness in energy, but Einstein went far beyond this. His revolutionary idea seemed to contradict the universally accepted theory that light consists of smoothly oscillating electromagnetic waves. But Einstein showed that light quanta, as he called the particles of energy, could help to explain phenomena being studied by experimental physicists. For example, he made clear how light ejects electrons from metals.

There was a well-known kinetic energy theory that explained heat as an effect of the ceaseless motion of atoms; Einstein proposed a way to put the theory to a new and crucial experimental test. If tiny but visible particles were suspended in a liquid, he said, the irregular bombardment by the liquid's invisible atoms should cause the suspended particles to carry out a random jittering dance. One should be able to observe this through a microscope, and if the predicted motion were not seen, the whole kinetic theory would be in grave danger. But just such a random dance of microscopic particles had long since been observed. Now the motion was explained in detail. Albert Einstein had reinforced the kinetic theory, and he had created a powerful new tool for studying the movement of atoms.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude. Music played an important role in his life. He married Mileva Marie in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and that very year he married his cousin, Elsa Lowenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Marie Curie

Marie Sklodowska-Curie, one of the few people to win two Noble Prizes in different fields, was one of the most significant researchers of radiation and its effects as a pioneer of radiology. Until her granddaughter recently had them decontaminated her notes were radioactive.

Marie Curie (Polish Maria Sklodowska-Curie, born November 7, 1867, died July 4, 1934) was a chemist pioneer in the early field of radiology and a two-time Nobel laureate. She also became the first woman ever appointed to teach at the Sorbonne. She was born in Warsaw, Poland, and spent her early years there, but in 1891 at age 24 moved to France to study science in Paris. She obtained all her higher degrees and conducted her scientific career there and became a naturalized French citizen. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw.

After finishing high school, she suffered a mental breakdown for a year. Due to her gender and Russian anti-Polish reprisals following the January Uprising, she was not allowed admission into any universities so she worked as a governess for several years. Eventually, with the monetary assistance of her elder sister, she moved to Paris and studied chemistry and physics at the Sorbonne, where she became the first woman to teach.

At the Sorbonne she met and married another instructor, Pierre Curie. Together they studied radioactive materials, particularly the uranium pitchblende ore, which had the curious property of being more radioactive than the uranium extracted from it. By 1898 they deduced a logical explanation: that the pitchblende contained traces of some unknown radioactive component which was far more radioactive than uranium; thus on December 26th Marie Curie announced the existence of this new substance.

Over several years of unceasing labour they refined several tons of pitchblende, progressively concentrating the radioactive components, and eventually isolated initially the chloride salts (refining radium chloride on April 20, 1902) and then two new chemical elements. The first they named polonium after Marie's native country, and the other was named radium from its intense radioactivity.

Together with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903: “in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel”. She was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.

Eight years later, in 1911, she received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element”. In an unusual move, Curie intentionally did not patent the radium isolation process, instead leaving it open so the scientific community could research unhindered.

In her later years, she was disappointed by the myriad of physicians and makers of cosmetics who used radioactive materials without precautions.

Her death near Sallanches in 1934 was from leukemia, almost certainly due to her massive exposure to radiation in her work.

Element 96 Curium (Cm) was named in her and Pierre's honour.

George and Robert Stephensons

George Stephenson won world-wide acclaim with his “Rocket” but he said that much of the credit belonged to his son Robert. Robert supervised the building of the “Rocket”, and later improved some parts in its construction.

Father and son were always very friendly. Robert was born in 1803, and his mother died before he was three years old. This brought the boy nearer to his father.

One thought above all others was in George Stephenson's mind: at all costs Robert should have some schooling. He worked long and hard to send the boy first to a village school, then to a school in Newcastle. Robert wore clothes made by his father and went to school on a donkey, because there was no money to buy a horse.

Robert's first period of schooling ended when he was twelve, but during his few years of schooling he was a teacher as well a pupil, because what he learned by day he taught his father in the evening.

In 1815 George Stephenson invented a miner's lamp ? the Georgie lamp, as it is still called, for use in the mines. For this invention he was given a large sum of money and so he could send Robert to Edinburgh University for a six-month course. From that time on, for many years, father and son worked closely together.

In 1821, when George Stephenson was asked to make a survey for the Stockton to Darlington Railway, his chief assistant was Robert.

They worked closely together again when they built the Liverpool to Manchester Railway. Then, as George Stephenson grew older and could not work much, he watched with pride as Robert gained achievements on his own, without his father's help.

Robert Stephenson built, for example, the Birmingham to London Railway, the first line to the British capital. For many years he built railways all over the world. Yet he is perhaps better remembered as a bridge-builder. He built bridges in Britain, in Canada and on the Nile.

A monument to father and son was erected in Westminster Abbey.

Thomas Alve Edison

Active Vocabulary:

his teacher thought him very stupid - вчитель вважав його дуже дурним; boxed his ear - сильно вдарив його у вухо: on the track - на рельсах.

Edison was a thoughtful little boy. He was very inquisitive and always wanted to know how to do things. He was not very strong, and went to school when he was quite a big child. But his teacher thought him very stupid because he asked so many questions. So his mother, who was a teacher, took him away from school at the end of two months and taught him at home. With such a kind teacher, he made progress; and above all, he learned to think. His mother had some good books and there was an encyclopedia among them. It was probably from the encyclopedia that he first took an interest in chemistry. He liked to make experiments, so he bought some books, and made a little laboratory in the cellar of his home.

When he was twelve years old, he started to earn his living and became a newsboy on the train which ran from Port Huron to Detroit. There was a corner in the baggage car where he kept his stocks of newspapers, magazines and candies. He moved his little laboratory and library of chemical books to this corner, and when he was not busy, went on with his experiments. All went well for two or three years. But when he was in his sixteenth year, one day a phosphorus bottle broke on the floor. It set fire to the baggage car, and the conductor not only put the boy off the train, but soundly boxed his ear. That was the most unfortunate part of the accident, for as a result Edison gradually lost his hearing, and became almost deaf.

Once he was standing on the platform of the station in Michigan, watching a coming train, when he saw the station agent's little boy on the track right in front of the coming engine. Another moment and the child would have been crushed; but Edison sprang to the track, seized the little one in his arms, and rolled with him to one side, just in time to escape the wheels. To show his gratitude the baby's father offered to teach Edison telegraphy. Working at telegraphy he at the same time spent all the spare moments in the study of chemistry and electricity. Experimenting he improved telegraph apparatus. About the same time Edison made an improvement in the transmitter of the telephone which made it easier for the waves to travel, and improved the usefulness of the telephone very much. It was just about the same time that he invented the phonograph. This is the parent idea of the gramophone, dictaphone and other instruments, but these inventions are only a small part of the work of this wonderful man.

Дайте відповіді на запитання.

1. How did Edison study at school? 2. What were his interests in his childhood? 3. Where did he work? 4. What accident happened to Edison? 5. What happened that changed Edison's life? 6. What did Edison invent?

To Lesson 11

Tipping in America

Americans take tipping more seriously than any other nationality, and of all Americans, no one takes tipping as seriously as hotel bellboys do.

Tip your bellboy generously, and you will have the perfect holiday. Do not tip him, and you will have the worst holiday of your life!

Guests who do not tip well at hotels often find that the heating in their room “accidentally” stops working in the middle of winter, or that they receive strange phone calls in the middle of the night.

Sometimes the keys for their room “disappear” and it seems that no one can find the spare keys.

It is a good idea to tip a bellboy at least 5 dollars and, for tips of 20 dollars or more, your bellboy will be your friend forever. So, anyone who is planning to stay in an American hotel should remember - bellboys can make sure you have the holiday of your dreams ... or they can make your visit a nightmare!

To Lesson 16

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering

Nuclear Science and Engineering is an intellectually exciting and socially important discipline, supporting a wide range of applications.

Our department presently consists of 28 faculty and senior research staff, 101 graduate and 48 undergraduate students. The curriculum includes over 70 subjects of instruction, leading to the B.S., M.S., N.E., and Ph.D. degrees. Our goal is to educate individuals to become future leaders and make fundamental contributions in each of the following three programs:

Fission Engineering and Nuclear Energy

Fusion and Plasma Physics

Nuclear Science and Technology

Research opportunities extend across all aspects of nuclear science and engineering enhanced by the use of world-class experimental facilities located on campus, including:

MITR-II, a 5-megawatt nuclear research reactor;

Alcator C-Mod, a high field tokamak fusion device;

Multi-accelerator laboratory, focusing on medical and industrial applications;

Multi-magnet nuclear magnetic resonance laboratory, focusing on medical imaging and quantum information processing.

Students also have access to state-of-the-art computational facilities.

Established in 1958, the Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering at MIT is one of the oldest Nuclear Science and Engineering graduate programs in the country. Still, compared to more traditional engineering disciplines, nuclear engineering is a relatively new addition to university educational programs. The field defines its education and research mission broadly as the study of nuclear and radiation interactions and their applications to problems of beneficial interest to society. Given that we have only recently begun to understand basic nuclear processes, nuclear engineering is still in its “pioneering” phase with regard to its impact on our lives.

University of Oxford

The Department of Chemistry

Each year some 170 chemists graduate after a four-year course which includes a year of research and about 80 graduates receive doctorates.

The Oxford Chemistry course is second to none in quality.

It has been judged to be excellent following a Teaching Quality Audit (TQA) by the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE). Furthermore, the research school of 74 faculty was awarded 5* (also the highest grade) in the most recent Research Assessment Exercise, published in December 2001, an evaluation that recognises its considerable international standing.

Her Majesty the Queen opened the new Ј60 million Chemistry Research Laboratory on 20th February 2004. This state of the art facility has five floors covering ~17,000 sq.m of laboratory and office space. The Ј60 million has been raised with grants from the JIF, Wolfson Foundation, EP Abraham Trust, Thomas Swan, the family of Landon T Clay, the Salters Company and a Ј20 million partnership with IP Group.

University of Cambridge

The Department of Physics at the Cavendish Laboratory

The Cavendish Laboratory was founded in 1871, along with the appointment of James Clerk Maxwell as the first Cavendish Professor. It has a distinguished intellectual history, with 29 Nobel prizewinners who worked for considerable periods within its facilities, and is associated with many notable discoveries, including the electron and the structure of DNA. In 1973, the Laboratory moved from the historic centre of Cambridge to a green-field site, a mile west of the city centre. This formed the nucleus for the Universities development of a new physical science campus in West Cambridge.

The Department of Physics, housed in the Cavendish Laboratory, is large. Currently there are 65 teaching staff, approximately 150 postdoctoral fellows, about 250 graduate students in total (including administrative and technical support staff), a complement of 700 people. Total research grant income was over Ј14M in 2004/5, and has roughly doubled during the last decade. The Department (jointly with the Institute of Astronomy), was rated 5* (the highest possible) in the 2001 National Research Assessment Exercise performed by the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE). The undergraduate teaching programme is a vigorous one, with about 120 students annually pro-ceeding to the 4-year MSci degree in Physics. During the first year, about 400 students take physics as part of the Natural Sciences Tripos. In the 1998 HEFCE subject review of teaching, the Department scored 23 out of a possible 24.

Research activities span all the areas of physics, and are organised under major research groupings: High Energy Physics, Astrophysics, Biological and Soft Systems, Semiconductor Physics, Optoelectronics & Microelectronics, Quantum Matter, Theory of Condensed Matter, and Physics and Chemistry of Solids.

Appendix II. Prepositions

About

1. On the subject of: This is a story about elephants.

2. Approximately: He is about ten years old.

Above

1. Higher than; over: The plane flew above the clouds.

2. Earlier on a page: There is a heading above each diagram.

Across

1. From one side to the other: We walked across the field.

2. On the other side of: There is a store across the street.

After

1. Later in time: after ten o'clock; after lunch

2. Later in a series: Q comes after P in the alphabet.

3. In pursuit of: The dog ran after the cat.

Against

1. In opposition to: Theft is against the law.

2. Touching; supported by: I leaned my bicycle against the wall.

Along

1. Following the length of: We walked along the road.

Among

1. Within a group: The money was shared among three people.

Around

1. Circling something: We walked around the block.

2. Surrounding: There is a fence around the garden.

3. In different parts of: I looked around the house for the keys.

4. In the other direction: We turned around and went back home.

5. Approximately: He is around six feet tall.

At

1. A specific location: at 23 Chestnut Street; at the bus stop

2. A point in time: at 5 o'clock; at Christmas

3. A condition: at peace; at war; at rest

4. An activity: at work; at school; at play

5. Towards: Look at someone; wave at someone

not at all: not in any way

at all times: always

at any rate: whatever happens

at one's disposal: to be used as one wishes

at first: at the beginning

at last: finally, after some delay

at a loss: uncertain what to do or say

at the moment: now

at once: immediately

at present: now

at this point: at this place; at this moment

Before

1. Earlier in time: before two o'clock; before Christmas

2. Earlier in a series: S comes before T in the alphabet.

Behind

1. At the back of: The little girl hid behind her mother.

2. Late: I am behind in my work.

3. Cause; origin: Who was behind that idea?

behind the scenes: (of persons) influencing events secretly; (in a theater) behind the stage

behind schedule: not on time

Below

1. Lower than; under: below freezing; below sea level

2. Later on a page: Footnotes are provided below the text.

Beneath

1. Lower than; below: beneath the earth

Beside

1. Next to; at the side of: I sit beside her in class.

be beside oneself: lose one's self-control

beside the point: irrelevant

Besides

1. Also; as well as: We study other languages besides English.

Between

1. An intermediate location: Toronto lies between Montreal and Vancouver.

2. An intermediate time: between Christmas and New Year's Day

3. Intermediate in a series: B comes between A and C in the alphabet.

4. An intermediate amount: between five and ten people

5. Within a group of two: The money was shared between two people.

read between the lines: deduce a meaning that is not actually expressed

Beyond

1. Farther than: The mountains lie beyond the horizon.

2. Further than; exceeding: That was beyond my expectations.

beyond one's understanding: unable to understand

beyond a joke: too annoying to be amusing

But

1. Except: I have read all but the last chapter.

By

1. Near: a house by the sea

2. Past: He waved as he drove by the house.

3. Not later than: Try to finish the work by next week.

4. In units of: cheaper by the dozen; sold by weight

5. Through the means of: travel by plane; written by him

by accident: not deliberately

by all means: by any possible method

bit by bit: gradually

by chance: by accident; without planning

by heart: from memory

little by little: gradually

by means of: by using

by mistake: accidentally

by no means: not at all

one by one: one at a time

by oneself: alone

side by side: beside one another

by the way: incidentally

Concerning

1. Connected with; about: He studies everything concerning trees.

Despite

1. In spite of: We walked downtown despite the rain.

Down

1. To a lower position: The ball rolled down the hill.

2. Further along: He lives down the street.

During

1. Throughout a period: She works during the day.

2. Sometime within a period: An accident occurred during the night.

Except

1. Not including: I have visited everyone except him.

For

1. Duration of time: We walked for two hours.

2. Distance: I walked for five kilometers.

3. Purpose: I bought this jacket for you.

4. In the direction of: She left for New York.

5. In favor of: We are for the proposal.

6. Considering: The boy is clever for his age.

once and for all: for the last time (e.g. used when giving someone a final warning)

for certain: definitely; without doubt

for example: as an illustration

for fun: for the sake of enjoyment

for good: permanently

for instance: for example; as an illustration

for a living: as a profession

for the sake of: for the benefit of; for the purpose of

for sale: intended to be sold

for sure: definitely (more colloquial than for certain)

food for thought: something which makes one think

good for nothing: of no use

for a while: for a period of time

word for word: exactly as said or written

From

1. Place of origin: We left from Boston; he comes from Mexico

2. Start of a period of time: from now on; from yesterday until today

3. Start of a range: From 20 to 30 people were present.

4. Cause: He suffers from nervousness.

5. Source: I first heard the story from you.

from head to foot: (of a person) completely; all over

from time to time: occasionally

In

1. Place thought of as an area: in London; in Europe

2. Within a location: in the room; in the building

3. Large units of time: That happened in March, in 1992.

4. Within a certain time: I will return in an hour.

5. By means of: write in pencil; speak in English

6. Condition: in doubt; in a hurry; in secret

7. A member of: He is in the orchestra; in the navy

8. Wearing: the boy in the blue shirt

9. With reference to: lacking in ideas; rich in oil

in addition to: as well as

in advance: before

be in agreement with: have the same opinion as

in any case: whatever happens

in brief: in a few words

in bulk: (of goods) in large amounts; not in packages

be in charge of: have responsibility for

in common: shared by all members of a group

in the course of: during

in detail: (explain something) thoroughly

in effect: (of rules) operating

in the end: finally

in fact: in reality; really

in favor of: supporting (an idea)

in general: usually; as a whole

in a hurry: trying to accomplish something quickly

in the long run: in the end; eventually

in a moment: soon; quickly

set something in motion: start something going

in no time: very soon; very quickly

in order to: for the purpose of

in particular: especially

in power: (of a political party) holding office

in practice: able to do something well because of recent practice; in reality (opposite of in theory)

in print: (of a book) printed and available from the publisher

in private: not in front of other people

in public: openly; not in private

be in time: not be late

be in trouble: be in a difficult situation; be blamed or punished for doing something wrong

in vain: without success

in the vicinity of: near

once in a while: occasionally

Inside

1. Within: They are inside the house.

inside out: with the inner side out; thoroughly

Into

1. To the inside of: We stepped into the room.

2. Change of condition: The boy changed into a man.

get into trouble: get into a difficult situation; do something deserving blame or punishment

Like

1. Resembling: That looks like him.

2. Appearing possible: It looks like rain.

3. Be in a suitable mood for: I feel like going swimming.

Minus

1. Less: Three minus two equals one.

Near

1. Close to: near the school; near the ocean

Of

1. Location: east of here; the middle of the road

2. Possession: a friend of mine; the sound of music

3. Part of a group: one of us; a member of the team

4. Measurement: a cup of milk; two meters of snow

of course: certainly; as one would expect; as everyone knows

one's point of view: one's opinion about something

Off

1. Not on; away from: Please keep off the grass.

2. At some distance from: There are islands off the coast.

go off the air: (of radio or television) stop broadcasting

off duty: not engaged in one's regular work

off and on: from time to time

off the record: say something privately, that is not to be officially recorded

On

1. Touching the surface of: on the table; on the wall

2. A certain day: That happened on Sunday, on the 6th of June.

3. A certain street: on South Street

4. About: a book on engineering

5. A state or condition: on strike; on fire; on holiday

6. By means of: live on a pension; shown on television

on account of: because of

be on the air: (of radio or television) be in the process of broadcasting

on the average: usually; normally

on behalf of: for; in the interests of

on board: on a ship or airplane

on business: as part of one's work

on condition that: only if; provided that

on demand: when asked for

on display: being exhibited

on duty: engaged in one's regular work

to go on foot: to walk

get on one's nerves: annoy; irritate

on no account: absolutely not

on the one hand: (used to introduce one side of an argument)

on the other hand: (used to introduce a contrasting side of an argument)

on one's own: alone; without help

on purpose: deliberately

on sale: being sold at a lower price than usual

on time: at the correct time

accept something on trust: accept something without proof

on the whole: taking everything into consideration

Onto

1. To a position on: The child climbed onto the table.

Opposite

1. Facing: The library is opposite the fire station.

...