English for technical students

Out of

1. To the outside of: She went out of the room.

2. From among: We won two games out of three.

3. Motive: We spoke to them out of politeness.

4. Material: The bridge is made out of steel.

5. Beyond: out of control; out of danger

out of control: not able to be regulated or guided

out of date: no longer used; old-fashioned; (of news) no longer true

out of doors: in the open air; not in a building

out of fashion: not fashionable; not presently in common use

out of hand: not under control

be out of one's mind: be insane

out of order: not functioning properly; (at a formal meeting) not behaving according to the rules

out of place: unsuitable

out of practice: unable to do something as well as one has in past, because of lack of recent practice

out of town: having temporarily left town

out of work: no longer having employment

Outside

1. On the outer side of: outside the house

2. Beyond the limits of: outside my experience

Over

1. Above; higher than: There are cupboards over the sink.

2. Covering: We spread an extra blanket over the bed.

3. Across: I jumped over a puddle.

4. More than: It cost over ten dollars; it took over an hour

5. During: I saw him several times over the past week.

6. By means of: We made plans over the telephone.

Past

1. Up to and beyond: I walked past the house.

2. After (in time): It was past 2 o'clock; half past two

3. Beyond: past belief

Per

1. For each: 60 kilometers per hour; price per liter

Plus

1. With the addition of: Six plus four equals ten.

Since

1. From a specific time in the past: I had been waiting since two o'clock.

2. From a past time until now: I have been waiting here since noon.

Through

1. Across; from end to end of: the main road through town

2. For the whole of a period: I slept through the night.

3. By means of: Skill improves through practice.

Throughout

1. In every part of: throughout the world

2. For the whole of a period: throughout the winter

Till

Note: Till can be used instead of until. However, at the beginning of a sentence, until is usually used.

To

1. In the direction of: Turn to the right.

2. Destination: I am going to Rome.

3. Until: from Monday to Friday; five minutes to ten

4. Compared with: They prefer hockey to soccer.

5. With indirect object: Please give it to me.

6. As part of infinitive: I like to ski; he wants to help.

7. In order to: We went to the store to buy soap.

to a certain extent: partly

to date: so far; until now

up to date: current; modern

take something to heart: be much affected by something

to the point: relevant

Toward (or Towards)

1. In the direction of: We walked toward the center of town.

2. Near; just before (time): It rained towards evening.

Under

1. Beneath: under the desk; under the trees

2. Less than: Under 100 people were present.

3. In circumstances of: under repair; under way; under discussion

under age: below the age of being legally permitted to do something

be under arrest: be held prisoner and charged with wrongdoing

under the circumstances: because this is true

under consideration: being thought about

under control: able to be regulated or guided

under cover of: protected by; undetected because of

be under the influence of: be affected by

under observation: being watched carefully

Underneath

1. Below, under: underneath the carpet

Until

1. Up to a certain time: She will stay until Friday; until 5 p.m.

Upon

Note: On and upon have similar meanings. Upon may be used in certain expressions, as in once upon a time, and following certain verbs, as in to rely upon someone.

Up

1. To a higher place: We went up the stairs.

2. In a higher place: She lives up the hill.

Up to

1. As far as: up to now; I have read up to page 100.

2. Depending on: The decision is up to you.

3. As good as; ready for: His work is up to standard.

Versus

1. Against (sports, legal): The next game is England versus Australia.

Via

1. By way of: He went to Los Angeles via San Francisco.

With

1. Accompanying: He came with her; I have my keys with me.

2. Having; containing: Here is a book with a map of the island.

3. By means of; using: I repaired the shoes with glue.

4. Manner: with pleasure; with ease; with difficulty

5. Because of: We were paralyzed with fear.

with regard to: concerning; about

with respect to: concerning; about

Within

1. Inside of: within twenty minutes; within one kilometer

within limits: to a certain extent; not too much

Without

1. Not having: Do not leave without your coat; without money

go without saying: be obvious



Appendix III. Irregular verbs

Infinitive	Past Indefinite	Participle II	Translation
Be	was; were	Been	бути, знаходитися
Bear	bore	Born	народжувати, витримувати
become	became	Become	стати
Begin	began	Begun	починати(ся)
Break	broke	Broken	ламати
Bring	brought	Brought	принести, привезти
Build	built	Built	будувати
Burn	burned / burnt	Burnt	палити, горіти
Buy	bought	Bought	купувати
Catch	caught	Caught	ловити, схватити
choose	chose	Chosen	вибирати
Come	came	Come	приходити, приїжджати
Cut	cut	Cut	різати
Do	did	Done	робити
Draw	drew	Drawn	малювати, тягти
Drink	drank	Drunk	пити, випивати
Drive	drove	Driven	везти, їхати, керувати авто
Eat	ate	Eaten	їсти
Fall	fell	Fallen	падати
Feel	felt	Felt	відчувати
Find	found	Found	знаходити
Fly	flew	Flown	літати
Forget	forgot	Forgotten	забувати
Freeze	froze	Frozen	мерзнути, заморозити
Get	got	Got	отримувати, стати
Give	gave	Given	давати
Go	went	Gone	йти, їхати
Grow	grew	Grown	рости, вирощувати
Have	had	Had	мати
Hear	heard	Heard	чути
Hold	held	Held	тримати, проводити (заходи)
Keep	kept	Kept	зберігати, тримати
Know	knew	Known	знати
Learn	learned/learnt	learned/learnt	вчити(ся)
Leave	left	Left	покидати, їхати
Let	let	Let	дозволяти
Lose	lost	Lost	загубити, програвати
Make	made	Made	робити, виробляти
Meet	met	Met	зустрічати, знайомитися
Pay	paid	Paid	платити
Put	put	Put	класти
Read	read	Read	читати
Ride	rode	Ridden	їздити верхи
Ring	rang	Rung	дзвонити
Rise	rose	Risen	підніматися, виникати
Run	ran	Run	бігати
Say	said	Said	говорити, казати
See	saw	Seen	бачити
Sell	sold	Sold	продавати
Send	sent	Sent	відсилати
Show	showed	showed/shown	показувати
Shut	shut	Shut	закривати
Sing	sang	Sung	співати
Sit	sat	Sat	сидіти
Sleep	slept	Slept	спати
Speak	spoke	Spoken	говорити
Spend	spent	Spent	витрачати
Stand	stood	Stood	стояти
Steal	stole	Stolen	красти
Swim	swam	Swum	плавати
Take	took	Taken	взяти, брати
Teach	taught	Taught	навчати
Tell	told	Told	розповідати
Think	thought	Thought	думати
Throw	threw	Thrown	кидати
understand	understood	Understood	розуміти
Wear	wore	Worn	носити (одяг), зношуватись
Win	won	Won	вигравати, перемагати
Write	wrote	Written	писати

Appendix IV. Supplementary Reading

Text 1. What Are Fossil Fuels?

Fossil fuels form from the remains of plants and animals that died millions of years ago. Over time, these remains sank to the bottom of the seas and oceans, and as layers grew on top of them they were subjected to enormous pressure and heat, causing the remains to break down into hydrocarbons, or compounds made of hydrogen and carbon. When these hydrocarbons are burned, the energy they release can be used to powers cars, produce electricity and heat homes.

Choose one of the options.

1. Fossil fuels were formed from ____.

a) ancient plants and animals b) carbon c) water

2. Chemically fossil fuels are ___.

a) compounds of oxygen b) acids c) hydrocarbons

3. When these fuels burn they ___ energy.

a) annihilate b) absorb c) release

Text 2. Where do Rainbows Come from?

Light bends as it travels from one location to another, due to the different speeds at which it travels through different mediums. This process of natural bending is referred to as refraction. When light passes through a prism, the different colours of the light refract out at different angles, dispersing and becoming individually visible to the human eye. The same principle applies when light passes through a droplet of water in the air. If enough light passes through enough droplets in a confined area, the refracted pattern of light is visible to humans as a bent stripe of multiple colours, known everywhere as a rainbow.

Choose one of the options.

1. Refraction is the process of natural ___ of light.

a) shining b) dissolution c) bending

2. When light passes through a prism, one can see different ___.

a) pictures b) colours c) movies

3. A rainbow is light passing through ___.

a) elementary particles b) a mountain c) droplets of water

Text 3. Where Does Metal Come From?

Most metal is mined straight out of the earth in the form of ore. Ore is any part of the Earth's crust, often a mixture of rocks, loose soil and other earthy materials, from which a valuable material can be extracted. This can be difficult, since the desirable metal is often locked in chemical compounds with other unwanted materials and filled with impurities. Ore refiners must find the best way to separate each useful element from the rest of the ore in which it lies. One common method of extraction is smelting, which is where refiners heat the ore to extremely high temperatures with the use of powerful furnaces. This makes it easier to get the pure metals out. In the refining of iron, for instance, the smelting process releases unwanted particles of oxygen that populate raw iron ore.

Choose one of the options.

1. Most metals are extracted from ___.

a) ore b) ear c) air

2. Ore always contains ___.

a) all the chemical elements b) some impurities c) only pure metal

3. To get the pure metal metallurgists use special ___.

a) furniture b) furnaces c) solvents

Text 4. How Did the Computer Mouse Come into Being?

The development of the computer mouse as an essential input device followed on the heels of numerous changes to the operating environment of personal computers. Initially, there was no need for a mouse, because there was nothing to point to on a computer screen. Early computers had primitive interfaces that used crude methods to receive data, like punch cards or teletype machines. Once graphical user interfaces were created, however, and pointing became an essential part of interacting with a computer, the mouse soon became the input device of choice in personal computing. The first mouse to have commercial success debuted with Apple's Macintosh computer in 1984.

Choose one of the options.

1. A mouse is ___.

a) a computer virus b) a system software c) an input device

2. Early computers used ___ cards to receive data.

a) punched b) playing c) credit

3. The mouse appeared only after ___ was created.

a) a keyboard b) a graphical interface c) a mouse pad

Text 5. What Are the Negative Social Effects of Computer Addiction?

Like any other addict, computer addicts can suffer from a variety of harmful side effects from their obsessive behavior. The most common and evident negative side effect revolves around the addict's social life. Most computer addicts will completely withdraw from their friends and family so they can have more time to spend on the computer, whether e-mailing, chatting, viewing pornography or playing games. Ultimately, the addicts will almost always completely withdraw from their real social world and delve deeper into their cyber world. Gamers, especially, can begin to consider things happening in their virtual gamer's world as more important than anything in their real lives. Many times these addicts will end up having trouble navigating real social situations.

Choose one of the options.

1. A computer addict is a person who ___.

a) writes computer programmes b) spends most of his time at a computer

c) can add well

2. The most important things for computer gamers are those which happen ___.

a) in their virtual world b) at their home c) with their football-team mates

Text 6. What Is Lava?

Lava is the molten or melted rock that is forced from volcanoes and cracks within the Earth's surface, as well as what is left behind once it cools and hardens. Cooled lava has formed many mountains and island chains, and much of it eventually becomes lush and productive soil. Lava is made up of mostly silicon dioxide, and geologists believe magma (the term used to describe the molten rock deep within the Earth) is created under extreme pressure and temperatures at great depths below the Earth's crust. When a volcano erupts, molten rock is forced up through the Earth's crust and expelled out as lava, which can reach temperatures as high as 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,200 degrees Celsius).

Choose one of the options.

1. Cooled lava formed many ___.

a) cities b) islands c) continents

2. Molten rock deep below the Earth's crust is called ___.

a) enigma b) sigma c) magma

3. Volcanic explosion is called ___.

a) corruption b) eruption c) extrusion

Text 7. What do we know about the surface of Mars?

Ever since the first successful flyby over Mars in 1964, scientists have been striving to gather more and more information about our rusty-red planetary neighbor. What we know already, based on soil and rock samples, as well as our observation of the planet, is that Mars is dusty, dry and cold. Its surface is heavily dotted with deep craters in some areas, while other areas have volcanic mountains even higher than Earth's highest volcano. Mars also has low-lying plains where scientists have discovered evidence of wind streaks, dunes and basins that resemble riverbeds. There are canyons on Mars, far deeper than our canyons on Earth, as well as polar regions - icy caps made up mostly of frozen carbon dioxide. Evidence suggests that liquid water once flowed over the surface of Mars. But as far as we know today, Mars remains a dry, rocky planet pummeled by dust storms and pocked with crater cavities.

Choose one of the options.

1. The first successful flight over Mars was performed ___.

a) in the late 1960s b) last year c) at the beginning of 20^th century

2. Observations proved that Mars is ___.

a) cold b) warm c) hot

3. Ice on Mars is made of ___.

a) water b) carbon monoxide c) carbon dioxide

Text 8. What Is An Electric Car?

An electric car is powered by an electric motor instead of a gasoline engine. The electric motor gets energy from a controller, which regulates the amount of power based on the driver's use of an accelerator pedal. The electric car (also known as electric vehicle or EV) uses energy stored in its rechargeable batteries, which are recharged by common household electricity.

Unlike a hybrid car - which is fueled by gasoline and uses a battery and motor to improve efficiency - an electric car is powered exclusively by electricity. Historically, EVs have not been widely adopted because of limited driving range before needing to be recharged, long recharging times, and a lack of commitment by automakers to produce and market electric cars that have all the creature comforts of gas-powered cars. That's changing. As battery technology improves - simultaneously increasing energy storage and reducing cost - major automakers are expected to begin introducing a new generation of electric cars.

Electric cars produce no tailpipe emissions, reduce our dependency on oil, and are cheaper to operate. Of course, the process of producing the electricity moves the emissions further upstream to the utility company's smokestack - but even dirty electricity used in electric cars usually reduces our collective carbon footprint.

Choose one of the options.

1. An electric car is powered by ___.

a) an electric motor b) a diesel engine c) an internal combustion engine

2. Batteries are recharged ___.

a) only at service stations b) from another car c) from household electric grid

3. Recharging a battery now takes ___.

a) little time b) much time c) much work of many people

Text 9. How Bearings Work?

Have you ever wondered how things like inline skate wheels and electric motors spin so smoothly and quietly? The answer can be found in a neat little machine called a bearing.

The bearing makes many of the machines we use every day possible. Without bearings, we would be constantly replacing parts that wore out from friction.

The concept behind a bearing is very simple. Things roll better than they slide. The wheels on your car are like big bearings. If you had something like skis instead of wheels, your car would be a lot more difficult to push down the road. That is because when things slide, the friction between them causes a force that tends to slow them down. But if the two surfaces can roll over each other, the friction is greatly reduced.

Bearings reduce friction by providing smooth metal balls or rollers, and a smooth inner and outer metal surface for the balls to roll against. These balls or rollers “bear” the load, allowing the device to spin smoothly.

There are several types of bearings, and each has its own interesting uses, including magnetic bearings and giant roller bearings.

Magnetic Bearings. Some very high-speed devices, like advanced flywheel energy storage systems, use magnet bearings. These bearings allow the flywheel to float on a magnetic field created by the bearing. Some of the flywheels run at speeds in excess of 50,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Normal bearings with rollers or balls would melt down or explode at these speeds. The magnetic bearing has no moving parts, so it can handle these incredible speeds.

Giant Roller Bearings. Probably the first use of a bearing was back when the Egyptians were building the pyramids. They put round logs under the heavy stones so that they could roll them to the building site. This method is still used today when large, very heavy objects like the Cape Hatteras lighthouse need to be moved.

Earthquake-Proof Buildings. The new San Francisco International Airport uses many advanced building technologies to help it withstand earthquakes. One of these technologies involves giant ball bearings. The 267 columns that support the weight of the airport each ride on a 5-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) steel ball bearing. The ball rests in a concave base that is connected to the ground. In the event of an earthquake, the ground can move 20 inches (51 cm) in any direction. The columns that rest on the balls move somewhat less than this as they roll around in their bases, which helps isolate the building from the motion of the ground. When the earthquake is over, gravity pulls the columns back to the center of their bases.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Bearings help to prevent wearing of parts caused by friction. 2. The concept of bearing is rolling instead of jumping. 3. Magnetic bearings are used in fly-wheels. 4. Ancient Egyptians put big stones under logs when they constructed pyramids. 5. Giant ball bearings are used in San Francisco's Opera House to prevent the building from ruining in earthquakes.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. Why things that slide begin to slow down? 2. At what speed do some flywheels run? 3. Why do magnetic bearing withstand such speeds? 4. How many columns support the building of San Francisco airport? 5. What force moves the columns back to their places after an earthquake?

Text 10. The Properties of Diamonds

Diamonds are found as rough stones and must be processed to create a sparkling gem that is ready for purchase.

Diamonds are the crystallized form of carbon created under extreme heat and pressure. It's this same process that makes diamonds the hardest mineral we know of. A diamond ranks a 10 on the Mohs Hardness Scale. The Mohs Scale is used to determine the hardness of solids, especially minerals. It is named after the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. Here's the scale, from softest to hardest:

talc - easily scratched by the fingernail;

gypsum - just scratched by the fingernail;

calcite - scratches and is scratched by a copper coin;

fluorite - not scratched by a copper coin and does not scratch glass;

apatite - just scratches glass and is easily scratched by a knife;

orthoclase - easily scratches glass and is just scratched by a file;

quartz - (amethyst, citrine, tiger's-eye, aventurine) not scratched by a file;

topaz - scratched only by corundum and diamond;

corundum - (sapphires and rubies) scratched only by a diamond;

diamond - scratched only by another diamond.

Even though diamond is only one level higher on the scale than corundum, diamond can be anywhere from 10 to hundreds of times harder than this class of gems.

It is the molecular structure of diamonds that makes them so hard. Diamonds are made of carbon atoms linked together in a lattice structure. Each carbon atom shares electrons with four other carbon atoms, forming a tetrahedral unit. This tetrahedral bonding of five carbon atoms forms an incredibly strong molecule. Graphite, another form of carbon, isn't as strong as diamond because the carbon atoms in graphite link together in rings, where each atom is only linked to one other atom.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Diamonds are a form of sodium. 2. Diamond is the hardest mineral we know. 3. Friedrich Mohs was an Italian Physicist. 4. Quartz is harder than gypsum. 5. In diamonds, carbon atoms make a hexahedron unit.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What physical phenomena influence the creation of diamonds? 2. What property is the criterion for ordering minerals in the Mohs Scale? 3. How many minerals are there in the Mohs Scale? 4. What makes diamond molecules so strong?

Text 11. Are Cell-phones Harmful?

All cell phones emit some amount of electromagnetic radiation. Given the close proximity of the phone to the head, it is possible for the radiation to cause some sort of harm to the 118 million cell-phone users in the United States. What is being debated in the scientific and political arenas is just how much radiation is considered unsafe, and if there are any potential long-term effects of cell-phone radiation exposure.

There are two types of electromagnetic radiation:

· Ionizing radiation. This type of radiation contains enough electro-magnetic energy to strip atoms and molecules from the tissue and alter chemical reactions in the body. Gamma rays and X-rays are two forms of ionizing radiation. We know they cause damage, which is why we wear a lead vest when X-rays are taken of our bodies.

· Non-ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radiation is typically safe. It causes some heating effect, but usually not enough to cause any type of long-term damage to tissue. Radio-frequency energy, visible light and microwave radiation are considered non-ionizing.

On its Web site, the FDA states that “the available scientific evidence does not demonstrate any adverse health effects associated with the use of mobile phones.” However, that doesn't mean that the potential for harm doesn't exist. Radiation can damage human tissue if it is exposed to high levels of RF radiation, according to the FCC. RF radiation has the ability to heat human tissue, much like the way microwave ovens heat food. Damage to tissue can be caused by exposure to RF radiation because the body is not equipped to dissipate excessive amounts of heat. The eyes are particularly vulnerable due to the lack of blood flow in that area.

The added concern with non-ionizing radiation, the type of radiation associated with cell phones, is that it could have long-term effects. Although it may not immediately cause damage to tissue, scientists are still unsure about whether prolonged exposure could create problems. This is an especially sensitive issue today, because more people are using cell phones than ever before. In 1994, there were 16 million cell-phone users in the United States alone. As of July 17, 2001, there were more than 118 million.

Here are a few illnesses and ailments that have potential links to cell-phone radiation: cancer, brain tumors, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, fatigue, headaches.

If you are worried about the potential hazards of cell-phone radiation, here are a few ways to reduce your risk:

· Use a hands-free headset.

· Use a phone that places the antenna as far away from you as possible.

· Extend the antenna during use.

· Limit calls inside buildings.

· Limit use by children.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Cell phones emit big amount of electromagnetic radiation. 2. Radio-frequency radiation has the ability to destroy human tissue. 3. Scientists still discuss the possible harm of cell phones effect. 4. Children may use cell phones without any restriction.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. How many cell phone users were there in the USA in 2001? 2. What illnesses may be caused by excessive use of cell phones? 3. What are the forms of ionizing radiation? 4. What organ is particularly vulnerable to the effect of heat?

Text 12. The Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks linked by a broad range of electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a lot of information resources and services, especially the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail.

Most traditional communications media, such as telephone and television services, are reshaped using the technologies of the Internet, giving rise to services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper publishing has been reshaped into Web sites, blogging, and web feeds. The Internet has enabled the creation of new forms of human communications through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking sites.

The Internet was created in the 1960s when the USA funded research projects of its military agencies decided to build forceful computer networks. Now the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological realization or policies for access and usage.

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much difference. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet is a global data communications system. It is a hardware and software infrastructure that provides connectivity between computers. In contrast, the Web is one of the services communicated via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. The Internet is a global system of computer networks connected by a wide range of electronic and optical networking technologies. 2. TV programs have been transformed into Web sites, blogging, and web feeds. 3. The Internet was created as forceful computer networks in the 1960s in the USA for military purposes. 4. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are one and the same.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the Internet? 2. What traditional communication media give rise to services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV? 3. What new forms of human communications were created in the Internet? 4. When was the Internet created?

Text 13. DNA Stretching Mystery is Solved

Researchers in Europe have unravelled a mystery that has been puzzling scientists for years: what happens to a molecule of DNA when it is stretched to its breaking point.

Now Erwin Peterman and his colleagues appear to have answered the question. The researchers carried out a DNA-stretching experiment by attaching one end of each strand of a length of double-stranded DNA to a polystyrene bead. The beads could be pulled apart with a controlled and measurable force by lasers - a process called optical tweezing.

“Pulling the DNA from both ends is a bit like pulling on a jacket that has a double-ended zipper,” says Peterman. “What we found was that at the transition force the zipper starts to come apart at either end, but remains zipped in the middle. In other words, the DNA comes apart at either end, and under tension this single-stranded DNA is 70 percent longer than double-stranded DNA.”

It is a great work. It tells us about the way the structure of a single molecule is changing under tension, something we have not been able to see before. It looks as though they have solved the question, but as always it is very complicated. So this might not be the end of the story.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. The researchers have been stretching strands of DNA for ages. 2. The scientists have divided strands of DNA into two different parts. 3. A single-stranded DNA is as long as a double-stranded one. 4. The structure of a single molecule can be changed under pressure.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. Who carried out a DNA-stretching experiment? 2. What was the DNA-stretching experiment? 3. What happened to a molecule of DNA when it was stretched to its breaking point? 4. Is this experiment useful? Why?

Text 14. Status of Genetically Modified Products

The development of modern biotechnology is really a ground-breaking advance because of its enormous power to transform living things. New techniques such as tissue culture, cell culture and embryo transfer, as well as various techniques of molecular manipulation, have emerged. Transgenic technologies such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are now being widely used in crop breeding and commercial production.

There are a number of actual or potential benefits from GM crops. These include:

· Enhanced crop yield and productivity;

· More nutritious and higher quality products;

· Less need for pesticides and herbicides;

· Greater efficiency in resource management;

· Role as a bioreactor to produce raw materials for pharmaceuticals and other industries.

For critics, there are four main objections:

· Consumers do not have enough information about GMOs.

· There may be potential detrimental effects from eating GM foods, while there have not yet been objective studies to identify such effects, if they exist.

· There may be unexpected environmental problems.

· Using of GM crops may go against certain religious beliefs and traditions.

So, rapid introduction of GM products into the market is really amazing. Many of the key technologies are in the hands of the private sector, and dominated by a few companies. The use of transgenic modification could have benefits for developing countries only, due to an affordable cost.

So, there are some more problems of using these products.

· Many developing countries can not afford the cost of biotechnology.

· The crop genetic improvements that are currently available are not suitable for developing countries.

· The question is who will assist developing countries, and what type of assistance is appropriate.

Population growth and food distribution will most likely remain the two most critical problems which mankind must face for many years to come. Biotechnology offers the potential to reduce uncertainty in the world's future food supply, in the face of a growing population and the limited carrying capacity of the Earth.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Transgenic technologies have been known since ancient times. 2. Genetically modified food is very useful for our body. 3. GMOs may cause plenty of environmental problems. 4. A developing country should have a fortune of money to afford the cost of biotechnology.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What new techniques in modern biotechnology do you know? 2. What are pros and cons of GM crops? 3. What is the situation with GM products on the market? 4. How can you solve the problem of food supply for all the mankind?

Text 15. The Big Future of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology deals in the realm of the nearly invisible. The word comes from the Greek nanos, meaning “dwarf”. But by most accounts, the tech-nology's potential is anything but small. Scientists and engineers can now physically work with materials at the atomic level to create stain-proof fabrics, scratch-resistant paints and longer-lasting tennis balls. And researchers say new medical diagnostic tools and smaller, more efficient fuel cells and batteries based on nanoscience are on the way.

From computer chips invisible to the naked eye to microscopic machines that seek out and destroy cancers inside the human body, a lot of scientists argue that the potential of nanotechnology could be endless, but not without controversy.

“If we can get a nanoparticle into a cell, that might prove to be a new and useful drug delivery device,” says Ms. Kulinowski, Executive Director of the Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology at Rice University. “On the other hand, it might prove to be a toxin to the cell either by punching a hole in the cell membrane or otherwise disrupting the cell's function”.

Whether the benefits of nanotechnology outweigh the risks will determine the future of what many researchers hope will be the world's next industrial revolution.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Nanoparticles are very big. 2. Nanotechnology has a great potential. 3. There is no need to use nanotechnology in medicine. 4. Nanotechnology is a step to the industrial revolution.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What does the word nanos mean? 2. At what spheres of industry can you use nanotechnology? 3. Why is nanotechnology useful? 4. How do nanoparticles influence the cells?

Text 16. The Greenhouse Effect

The light from the sun comes in, and the greenhouse gases trap some of the heat radiated from the Earth. It's an energy balance. The more heat that comes in or the more heat that is trapped, the higher the energy balance is. The bigger the ice fields, the lower the Earth's energy balance.

A fundamental error is being spread that, because a global warming gas is transparent to a large amount of the incoming radiation from the sun, it cannot have much effect in terms of warming the planet. This is an error that ignores a real-world fact that incoming radiation is converted to longer wave-lengths as it impacts the atmosphere and the planetary surface. It is these longer wave-lengths that are then blanketed from escaping back into space. If it were not for this wave-length conversion (mechanism), the greenhouse gases (GHGs) would not be causing the rise in the level of the Earth's energy balance.

The energy balance for the Earth is about 33° Centigrade higher than it would otherwise be if there was no greenhouse effect. The average temperature on Earth is about 16° Centigrade. Thus, it would be more like -17° Centigrade, if there were no greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and, therefore, no greenhouse effect. The best estimate is for climate sensitivity to be 3°С. Values substantially higher than 4.5° C cannot be excluded.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Energy balance depends on heat level. 2. GHGs can not cause the rise in the level of the Earth's energy balance. 3. The average temperature on Earth is about 18° Celsius. 4. The best temperature for climate is 3° F.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What is an energy balance? 2. What error information is spread all over the world? 3. What is the difference between a greenhouse effect and a global warming? 4. Is there any danger in the greenhouse effect?

Text 17. Essential “Green” Metals are being Thrown Away

That old cellphone gathering dust in your cupboard could help the economy go green, if only you could get round to recycling it. A UN report published last week says that too many of the rare metals that are essential for green technologies are locked up in old gadgets we throw away or forget about.

The report, from the United Nations Environment Programme, examined the recycling rates of 60 metals. Globally, 34 of them have recycling rates below 1 per cent, while only 18 have rates above 50 per cent. Among the least-recycled metals are tellurium and gallium - which are used in solar cells - and lithium, a key component of the batteries in electric cars - which is also found in cellphone batteries.

These metals are not yet in heavy use, but will be crucial over the next few decades. While we are unlikely to run out of them in the near future, recycling those already in use is less energy-intensive than mining, offering a way to make the green technologies that rely on the metals even greener.

“Most metals can be used over and over again,” says leading author Thomas Graedel of Yale University. But this doesn't happen, partly because electronic devices are not designed with recycling in mind, and partly because people hang onto their old gadgets for years. This hoarding mentality may be influenced by privacy concerns associated with selling or recycling old electronics that store personal information.

Part of the solution is to collect more metals for recycling, but Graedel says we also need to update our recycling technology. At the moment, about 70 per cent of the metal sent for recycling gets lost during the process.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. UN specialists discovered that some rare metals are thrown away together with food wastes. 2. Gallium is used in producing electric car batteries. 3. Cellphone batteries contain Lithium. 4. During the recycling process, about 50 per cent of rare metals are lost.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What technologies use most of rare metals? 2. What investigation concerning rare metals was made under the United Nations Environment Programme? 3. Why aren't rare metals recycled on a large scale?

Text 18. Robots

Ever since the Czech writer Karel Chapek first coined the term “robot” in 1921, there has been an expectation that robots would some day deliver us from the drudgery of hard work. The word - from the Czech “robota”, for hard labour and servitude - described intelligent machines used as slaves in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots).

Today, over one million household robots, and a further 1.1 million industrial robots, are operating worldwide. Robots are used to perform tasks that require great levels of precision or are simply repetitive and boring. Many also do jobs that are hazardous to people, such as exploring shipwrecks, helping out after disasters, studying other planets and defusing bombs or mines.

Robots are increasingly marching into our lives. In the future, robots will act as carers, medics, bionic enhancements, companions, entertainers, security guards, traffic police and even soldiers.

Domestic invasion.

Despite the longevity of the robot concept, robotic butlers that roam our homes and relieve us from housework still seemed far from reality until very recently. Instead, the vast majority of robots worked in factories performing the industrial functions of brainless machines.

However, a combination of increased computing power and advances made in the field of artificial intelligence, or AI, have now made software smart enough to make robots considerably more useful.

A recent report published by the United Nations revealed that sales of domestic robots had tripled in a single year. What's more, they were well on their way to outstripping their industrial cousins.

While a large portion of the household robots were made up of robotic vacuum cleaners, mops, lawn mowers, pool cleaners, security bots and even robotic baby-rockers - the real boom was in entertainment robots.

Suddenly people were happy to pay for robots that had no specific functional value. Instead these bots, such as Sony's Aibo robotic dog and its robo-pups served as robo-pets and companions, rather than slaves.

This is partly because many domestic chores still pose a real challenge for robots, in terms of dexterity and intelligence, even with seemingly simple chores such as ironing.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Karel Chapek was a Czech engineer. 2. Robots are used to perform boring repetitive work. 3. Robots can be found only at the enterprises. 4. Robots can easily do ironing.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. Where did the word “robot” first appear? 2. How many industrial robots are used today? 3. What household jobs can robots perform? 4. What robots are being used now to entertain their masters?

Text 19. Raphael Revealed by Raman Spectrography

A portrait of Madonna and the Child is one of Raphael's most famous Renaissance creations. Now it is in a gallery in Dresden, Germany. For many years people have wondered what the provenance of the work is.

Laser Raman spectral analysis of three flecks of paint taken from the Raphael's canvas reveals that the unknown artist used a lead-based yellow pigment called massicot (lead II oxide). This is typical of the Renaissance period and it was not used in the early 17th century. There's historical evidence that massicot was one of the pigments used by Raphael himself.

Raman analysis is a very good technique for detecting pigments. Using scanning electron microscopy (energy dispersive x-ray microanalysis), scientists identified another yellow - lead-tin yellow - in some of Raphael's paintings at the gallery. But it is possible that the artist was also using other yellows.

Later, as the painting has aged, a miniature sketch of the composition has become visible beneath the Madonna's scarf. “It's undoubtedly an original in some form,” Alan Ward said. Further research could confirm it. But it's unlikely there will ever be conclusive proof that Raphael was the artist. “The more evidence one gets about it, the more firm the conclusions that can be drawn,” he said.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Raphael made only one work. It is “Madonna and the Child”. 2. Using massicot was widely spread during the Renaissance period. 3. Scientists have never detected pigments yet. 4. Scientists could see nothing under the layers of paint on the portrait.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. Where is the portrait of Madonna and the Child now? 2. What is massicot? 3. What did the scientists do to detect pigments? 4. What was Raphael and what do you know about him?

Text 20. How Much Arsenic do You Drink?

Sex, drugs, rocks, gold, murder, war, mass poisonings, the deaths of Napoleon, Tchaikovsky, Mozart, and others are all linked by one element - arsenic! Arsenic has been around since the beginning of time and the word has become a metaphor for poison with associated shock value.

But nowadays Japanese rice-based drinks are becoming a central part of Western diets, such as vegan diets. However, the levels of toxic inorganic arsenic contained in these types of drinks could, in fact, be cause for concern.

High levels of arsenic have recently been found in rice-based food. Now, researchers have found that some drinks and syrups contain high levels of arsenic too. “The rice-derived products we investigated are consumed by millions of people in Japan on a regular basis, and are increasingly becoming an important part of the diet of health conscious consumers in Western countries,” says Signes-Pastor. However, regularly including these types of drinks in the diet could add as much as 23% of the daily tolerance level of arsenic.

Although in isolation this may not seem of massive concern, for people already taking high levels of arsenic from rice and sea-weed based products this could mean exceeding maximum daily tolerance levels.

Similar products derived from barley or millet contain much lower levels of arsenic and could be used as an alternative to the rice based drinks. This could be particularly important for people who already eat a lot of rice and sea-weed products.

The experiments showed that regulations for inorganic arsenic in foodstuffs and non-water drinks should be re-examined. Regulations for arsenic in foodstuffs and non-water drinks may lead to a reduction in the incidence of arsenic-attributable diseases, including various cancers.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Toxic inorganic arsenic could cause cancer. 2. The rice-derived products consumed by millions of people on a regular basis are less important part of the diet of health conscious consumers. 3. The products derived from barley and millet contain much more arsenic than rice-based food. 4. Contemporary regulations for inorganic arsenic in foodstuffs and non-water drinks should be admitted.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What do you know about vegan diets? 2. What food contains high levels of arsenic? 3. Why is arsenic dangerous? 4. What should scientists do in order to protect people against arsenic-attributable diseases?

O He laughs best who laughs last!

· One day a professor was discussing a particularly complicated physics concept. A pre-med student rudely interrupted to ask, “Why do we have to learn this pointless information.”

“To save lives,” the professor responded quickly and continued the lecture.

A few minutes later, the same student spoke up again. “So how does physics save lives?” he persisted.

“It keeps the ignoramuses like you out of medical school,” replied the professor.

· Two things are infinite: the universe and human stupidity; and I'm not sure about the universe. (Albert Einstein)

· French physicist Ampere (1775-1836) had two cats, one big and a one small, and he loved them very much. But when the door was closed cats couldn't enter or exit the room. So Ampere ordered two holes to be made in his door: one big for the big cat, and one small for the small cat.

· What's the difference between mechanical engineers and civil engineers?

Mechanical engineers build weapons. Civil engineers build targets.

· Many dead animals in the past changed to fossils while others preferred to be oil.

· Living on Earth may be expensive, but it includes an annual free trip around the Sun.

· Q: How many programmers does it take to change a light bulb?

A: None. It's a hardware problem.



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34. Advanced Grammar in Use: a self-study reference and practice book for ad...